La poésie de Racine présente trois caractéristiques principales : le travail du rythme, la recherche des images, les effets d'atténuation.
L'alexandrin tragique se devait, au XVIIe siècle, de donner une figuration acceptable du langage parlé qu'il était censé représenter. De cette obligation Racine fait le point de départ d'une recherche très poussée en matière de rythme. La plus grande variété règne dans son œuvre : les tirades longues, minutieusement construites, y alternent avec les phrases interrompues, les échanges brefs de répliques cinglantes ou d'aveux mélancoliques. Variété d'ensemble qui va de pair avec les effets dans la construction de détail des vers. L'univers tragique s'enrichit ainsi de tous les aperçus proposés au spectateur cultivé, de tous les arrière-plans historiques, mythologiques ou bibliques qu'un mot ou une image suffisent à suggérer. Racine puise dans les métaphores qui constituaient l'arsenal de la poésie amoureuse de l'époque, mais il leur donne une vigueur nouvelle en les inscrivant dans une thématique cosmique, au-delà même de l'espace géographique et du temps historique, dans une interrogation sur la condition de l'homme.
Au total, le théâtre racinien apparaît comme une interrogation sur les pouvoirs du langage : sa dramaturgie repose sur la tension vers une décision à prendre, donc vers un instant où « dire, c'est agir ». Et, face au danger des mots, les personnages doivent mobiliser toute leur attention pour ne pas être trahis par le langage, prisonnier de termes qui ne coïncideraient pas avec leur volonté. Le sens « clair » n'est pas immédiat, il est l'objet d'une quête à travers l'opacité du langage, il est le fruit d'une conquête, au terme de laquelle s'impose le plus souvent le constat tragique qu'il est trop tard.
Racine (Louis)
Écrivain français (Paris 1692 – id. 1763).
Fils cadet de Jean Racine, il se lança dans la carrière poétique. Il composa des poèmes d'inspiration religieuse, sans se risquer à écrire pour le théâtre. À côté des Odes, tirées de la Bible, et des Épîtres sur l'homme, ses titres principaux sont la Grâce (1720) et la Religion (1742). Il traduisit en prose le Paradis perdu de Milton (1755), publia des Mémoires sur la vie de Jean Racine (1747), des remarques sur son théâtre et des essais théoriques sur la poésie.
Radcliffe (Ann Ward, Mrs)
Femme de lettres anglaise (Londres 1764 – id. 1823).
Au cours d'une brève carrière littéraire (1789-1797), elle donne cinq romans, qui définissent, de façon exemplaire, l'imaginaire et les moyens du roman noir : les Châteaux d'Athlin et de Dunbayne (1789), Julia ou les Souterrains de Mazzini (A Sicilian Romance, 1790), la Forêt ou l'Abbaye de Saint-Clair (1791), les Mystères d'Udolphe (1794), l'Italien ou le Confessionnal des pénitents noirs (1797). Un journal de voyage (A Journey made in the Summer of 1794 through Holland and the Western Frontier of Germany, 1795), un recueil de poèmes (The Poems of Mrs Radcliffe, 1816) et un conte en vers, publié après la mort de l'auteur (Gaston de Blondeville ou Henri III tenant sa cour à Kenilworth en Ardennes, 1826), complètent l'œuvre. Nourrie de l'Arioste, marquée par les poèmes de Gray, de Collins, de Thomson, lectrice de Rousseau et de Mme de Genlis, influencée par le préromantisme allemand, et attentive à ses contemporain, Walpole, Clara Reeve, Matthew Lewis, A. Radcliffe trouve sa véritable inspiration lorsqu'elle abandonne la scène écossaise de son premier roman pour les lieux italiens ou alpins et qu'elle associe la géographie romanesque – sublime des paysages, claustration des châteaux et des souterrains – à des histoires d'amour complexes. Ses personnages (surtout les « maudits ») ont en effet une épaisseur psychologique certaine (qu'on ne trouvait pas chez Walpole), malgré la présence du surnaturel, qui permet d'opposer l'innocence au mal et de conclure en rétablissant les droits des victimes. Cette alliance de données contraires et de termes extrêmes, inséparable d'un jeu sur les visions et sur les apparences – thèmes du fantôme et du revenant –, se caractérise aussi par l'insistance sur les violences physiques et les tortures morales, dénonçant le sort fait aux « bons ». En effet, les romans de A. Radcliffe ne se contentent pas de procurer des frissons sans risques à un lectorat souvent (mais pas uniquement) féminin. Ils se veulent aussi porteurs de messages plus politiques : dénonciation de la religion (catholique) présentée comme obscurantiste (le Confessionnal des pénitents noirs), des arbitraires sociaux, des tyrannies familiales (Udolphe). À la fin, l'ordre est rétabli, les innocents sauvés et le surnaturel expliqué, triomphe de la raison et de la lucidité sur le mal et l'obscurité. Le côté conventionnel de ces dénouements heureux a longtemps occulté l'aspect plus subversif de ces romans.
radical et populiste (courants)
Le courant radical en Russie tire son origine de la pensée « occidentaliste » et se réclame de Herzen et, surtout, de Nikolaï Tchernychevski (1828-1889) : continuateur de Bielinski, celui-ci pose les fondements d'un art utilitaire, dont il donne lui-même un exemple dans un roman à thèse (Que faire ? 1863), qui sera la bible de la jeunesse révolutionnaire. C'est Nikolaï Dobrolioubov (1836-1865) qui tire les conséquences littéraires de ces théories : ses articles de critique sont autant de prétextes à l'évocation de problèmes sociaux. Dmitri Pissarev (1840-1868) va encore plus loin puisqu'il préconise la destruction de l'esthétique. Sa cible favorite est Pouchkine, type même du styliste qui prépare « une génération de parasites ». Lorsque la génération des années 1860, celle des « nihilistes », cède la place à celle des années 1880, celle des populistes, le chef de file de cette littérature engagée devient le critique Nikolaï Mikhaïlovski (1842-1904), qui fait de la littérature un instrument de propagande auprès des paysans ; les romanciers populistes ont une mission sociale et doivent élever leur art et leur pensée au niveau des besoins du peuple. G. Ouspenski est un des écrivains les plus représentatifs de ce courant, mais on peut citer aussi Nikolaï Zlatovratski (1845-1911), qui loue les vertus collectives de la communauté paysanne contre les intérêts capitalistes (les Jours du village, 1879), Alexandre Ertel (1855-1908), qui peint la vie rurale et citadine de la Russie et évoque la démocratisation de l'intelligentsia (les Gardénine, 1889 ; la Relève, 1891). Les genres de prédilection de ce courant sont le roman journalistique, les esquisses ethnographiques ou sociologiques, les scènes de la vie populaire construites autour d'un conflit social et non psychologique. La littérature populiste a aussi influencé des écrivains qui ne se rattachent pas directement à ce courant, comme Dmitri Mamine-Sibiriak (1852-1912), auteur de romans sur la vie misérable des mineurs de l'Oural ou des « bourlaki », les haleurs de bateau de la Volga.
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