Le récit, devenu par le roman fin en soi, fait que le genre pose des problèmes spécifiques d'interprétation. La tradition critique contemporaine se partage entre une narratologie (qui tente de dire une poétique du roman à partir de la Poétique d'Aristote et des hypothèses de la linguistique, de la sémantique, de la sémiologie) et l'analyse de cette finalité propre de la narration romanesque, qui conduit à l'examen de la fonction du roman et à son inscription différentielle dans l'ensemble des genres littéraires. Ce partage méthodologique ne se distingue pas de la recherche d'une propriété axiologique du roman, ni de sa pertinence sociale ou sociologique. La narratologie et la rhétorique de la fiction romanesque marquent que le texte romanesque se constitue en ensemble autonome : l'organisation du texte, les rapports entre argument et description, entre personnages, actions et événements contribuent à cette autonomie au moyen de techniques spécifiques (focalisation ; statuts divers du monologue ; hiérarchie et montage des séquences actantielles). Ces recherches ont pour constante de rapporter le roman à une sémantique de l'action (le roman est ainsi passible, comme tout récit, d'une analyse suivant la triade : sujet, verbe, complément), à une typologie des actants et à une distribution sémique, qui permet de donner une classification unitaire des éléments de l'œuvre, souvent transversale à ce que dit la lettre du texte. Cette narratologie s'achève dans les usuelles questions esthétiques : frontières du vraisemblable, composition même du roman où il faut distinguer la suite des événements et des actions dans leur ordre chronologique et leur présentation suivant les parcours latéraux et les effets voulus par le romancier. Il n'y a pas là, de fait, d'approche spécifique du roman : le romanesque se défait dans le narratif. Malgré les propositions unitaires de la narratologie, il faut donc distinguer récit et roman : l'un considère l'événement en tant qu'il a lieu, fût-ce de manière rétrospective ; l'autre rapporte ce qui a eu lieu, hors de l'exposé d'une dynamique interne des événements. Le récit resterait essentiellement conceptuel dans la mesure où, traitant d'un acquis, il serait inévitablement réflexif ; le roman substitue à l'ordre d'exposition ou de motivation conceptuel un ordre de production, qui renverse la hiérarchie de l'agissement et de l'événement et établit le primat de l'agent hors de toute légalité attachée à l'événement même. Dans le partage des pratiques littéraires, le récit introduit historiquement au roman dans la mesure même où l'événement fonde l'épreuve et l'aventure : l'exposé de la production du fait (tel est le cas du roman grec) se confond avec la juxtaposition d'une série d'événements, coordonnés par le narrateur, mais encore unis par la reprise ou la similitude des personnages – début de mise en perspective génétique.
roman à thèse
L'expression « roman à thèse » a le plus souvent une résonance péjorative. Paul Bourget, considéré comme un maître du genre, a ainsi distingué la « littérature à idées, genre légitime » et la « littérature à thèse, genre essentiellement faux » : il définit ses propres romans comme des « romans d'analyse » et donne comme exemples de romans à thèse les romans de George Sand et de Hugo, fictions développées pour « illustrer » le bien-fondé d'une thèse politique humanitaire. En fait, même si subsiste jusqu'à nos jours une littérature romanesque de divertissement, on peut avancer qu'il n'y a pas depuis le milieu du XVIIIe siècle de roman important sans « thèse » sous-jacente. Dans le « roman à thèse » au sens étroit, la structure romanesque n'est pas commandée par la dynamique interne du roman, mais par une démarche intellectuelle qui lui est extérieure et dont le roman apparaît comme l'illustration ou la démonstration. L'objet peut en être philosophique (romans mystiques de Huysmans, roman existentialiste de Camus), idéologique (le Disciple de Bourget), ouvertement politique (les Chiens de garde de Nizan). Le roman à thèse apparaît ainsi comme un substitut et comme parfois un double romancé de l'essai discursif. Il s'inscrit dans l'actualité immédiate et peut avoir un objectif circonstanciel : le Dernier Jour d'un condamné appuyait la campagne de Hugo pour l'abolition de la peine de mort.
Le genre repose, au fond, sur la certitude et la vertu – à tout le moins sur la transparence et la prégnance de l'idée –, et fleurit en période de conflits idéologiques et sociaux aigus : la France de la fin du XIXe s., celle de l'entre-deux-guerres, la Russie de la seconde moitié du XIXe s.
Entre le pur « roman à thèse » et le roman « idéologique » (par exemple les Communistes d'Aragon), il existe quantité de formes intermédiaires, soit que le talent du romancier donne à la démonstration une vie autonome (les Démons de Dostoïevski sont-ils ou non un roman à thèse ?), soit que l'auteur prête à un personnage l'expression directe de ses idées (Vautrin dans le Père Goriot), soit qu'il use de digressions plus ou moins longues (chez Fielding, des chapitres entiers), qu'il en fasse un roman dans le roman (« le Grand Inquisiteur » dans les Frères Karamazov) ou qu'il prolonge son roman en considérations idéologiques (la 4e partie de Guerre et Paix).
roman comique
Cette alliance, incongrue pour l'époque, entre le romanesque et le comique fut inventée par Scarron (le Roman comique, 1651-1657) : il s'agissait, dans la lignée des « histoires comiques », courts récits destinés à faire rire, comme la comédie, par la peinture ridicule des mœurs contemporaines (ainsi des Caquets de l'accouchée, 1622), de montrer que le roman, genre « noble » réputé « fabuleux », pouvait trouver une nouvelle source d'inspiration dans la représentation vraisemblable des gens ordinaires, et des réalités sociales et morales dans leur diversité. Ce roman se nourrit à la fois d'une tradition française (les fabliaux, Rabelais, les contes du XVIe s.), et des romans picaresques espagnols. Ses représentants les plus marquants (Sorel, Histoire comique de Francion, 1623 ; Scarron, Furetière, le Roman bourgeois, 1666) en font également le lieu d'une interrogation très moderne sur les liens entre littérature et réalité.
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