Les grandes interrogations de l'évolution démographique
Il y a presque exactement deux siècles, les premières manifestations d'un phénomène déterminant de l'histoire humaine se produisaient dans la France paysanne de Louis XVI : l'homme commençait à limiter volontairement sa descendance et à l'abaisser au-dessous des limites du biologique, sans pour autant recourir ni aux moyens sociaux traditionnels (élévation de l'âge au mariage, augmentation du nombre des célibataires définitifs), ni à l'avortement ou à l'infanticide. Ce phénomène, qui n'avait pas de précédent si ce n'est dans certaines classes de la noblesse ou de la haute bourgeoisie, est passé largement inaperçu des contemporains, même si certains, tel l'économiste Thomas Malthus en Angleterre, constataient et déploraient « qu'on trompât la nature jusque dans les chaumières ». Et c'est seulement dans la période toute récente qu'on lui a donné un nom et qu'on l'a fait sortir du ghetto des tabous : la contraception, c'est-à-dire la dissociation de la sexualité et de la reproduction.
Glossaire
Génération : ensemble des femmes nées la même année de calendrier ; le millésime de l'année est attaché à la génération considérée : par exemple, les personnes nées en 1900 constituent la génération 1900.
Espérance de vie (ou plus précisément espérance de vie à la naissance) : c'est la durée moyenne de vie, ou encore l'âge moyen au décès, des personnes soumises à une loi de mortalité donnée. L'espérance de vie à une époque particulière se calcule à partir des éléments de la loi de mortalité observée au cours de la période.
Taux de croissance démographique : c'est le taux de variation annuel (exprimé en % ou en ‰) de l'effectif d'une population. (Il est l'équivalent démographique du taux d'intérêt financier.)
Taux de fécondité par âge : rapport du nombre d'enfants nés au cours d'une année, dont la mère avait l'âge considéré, à l'effectif total des femmes ayant cet âge-là. En négligeant les accouchements multiples, le taux de fécondité à 20 ans est égal à la proportion des femmes qui ont un enfant l'année de leur 20e anniversaire.
Descendance finale : l'addition des taux de fécondité par âge observés sur une même génération féminine entre l'année où cette génération a eu 15 ans et celle où elle a eu 50 ans fournit la descendance finale de cette génération. En négligeant la mortalité féminine entre 15 et 50 ans ainsi que les migrations internationales entre ces âges, la descendance finale, qui s'exprime en nombre moyen total d'enfants par femme, coïncide avec la réponse qu'on obtiendrait en moyenne en demandant à un échantillon de femmes de 50 ans le nombre d'enfants nés vivants qu'elles ont eus au cours de leur vie féconde.
Indicateur conjoncturel de la fécondité : l'addition des taux de fécondité par âge observés au cours d'une année donnée — donc sur des générations différentes de femmes — est l'indicateur conjoncturel de l'année. Si les taux de fécondité par âge demeuraient immuables, l'indicateur conjoncturel serait constamment égal à la descendance finale. Mais les taux de fécondité par âge évoluant, l'indicateur conjoncturel, qui caractérise la situation d'une année au regard de la fécondité, peut s'écarter notablement de la descendance finale des générations alors en âge de fécondité.
Comme la descendance finale, l'indicateur conjoncturel de la fécondité s'exprime en termes de nombre moyen d'enfants par femme.
Loi d'airain
Cette étape de l'aventure humaine constitue une rupture avec un passé millénaire et il est aisé de comprendre que le corps social, les mentalités collectives, les religions aient souvent livré un long combat d'arrière-garde contre une évolution qui conduisait à une révision déchirante d'un système immémorial de valeurs. Par exemple, toutes les religions ont prôné la fécondité et glorifié la maternité. Ce n'est évidemment pas un hasard : le maintien de la fécondité à une valeur proche du maximum physiologique (en moyenne 10 à 12 enfants par couple (du moins s'agissant des couples formés à l'âge de 20-24 ans pour la femme et 25-29 ans pour le mari et non dissous lorsque la femme parvenait à 50 ans)) était une nécessité absolue pour équilibrer une mortalité élevée (correspondant à une espérance de vie de 25 à 30 ans au maximum). Les groupes humains qui n'ont pas obéi à cette loi d'airain de la survie collective ont tout simplement disparu. Le prestige social attaché à une nombreuse postérité et, inversement, la réprobation encourue par la femme stérile (ou supposée telle) témoignent du système de valeurs orienté vers une fécondité élevée, qui a prévalu dans de nombreuses sociétés pendant des millénaires.
>
We Care About Your Privacy
We and our 916 partners store and access personal data, like browsing data or unique identifiers, on your device. Selecting "I Accept" enables tracking technologies to support the purposes shown under "we and our partners process data to provide," whereas selecting "Reject All" or withdrawing your consent will disable them. If trackers are disabled, some content and ads you see may not be as relevant to you. You can resurface this menu to change your choices or withdraw consent at any time by clicking the ["privacy preferences"] link on the bottom of the webpage [or the floating icon on the bottom-left of the webpage, if applicable]. Your choices will have effect within our Website. For more details, refer to our Privacy Policy.
We and our partners process data to provide:
Use precise geolocation data. Actively scan device characteristics for identification. Store and/or access information on a device. Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development.
About Your Privacy
Your Privacy
Targeting Cookies
Functional Cookies
Performance Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Store and/or access information on a device 741 partners can use this purpose
Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development 882 partners can use this purpose
Use precise geolocation data 282 partners can use this special feature
Actively scan device characteristics for identification 150 partners can use this special feature
Ensure security, prevent and detect fraud, and fix errors 568 partners can use this special purpose
Deliver and present advertising and content 568 partners can use this special purpose
Match and combine data from other data sources 406 partners can use this feature
Link different devices 351 partners can use this feature
Identify devices based on information transmitted automatically 539 partners can use this feature
Save and communicate privacy choices 413 partners can use this special purpose
Your Privacy
We process your data to deliver content or advertisements and measure the delivery of such content or advertisements to extract insights about our website. We share this information with our partners on the basis of consent. You may exercise your right to consent, based on a specific purpose below or at a partner level in the link under each purpose. Some vendors may process your data based on their legitimate interests, which does not require your consent. You cannot object to tracking technologies placed to ensure security, prevent fraud, fix errors, or deliver and present advertising and content, and precise geolocation data and active scanning of device characteristics for identification may be used to support this purpose. This exception does not apply to targeted advertising. These choices will be signaled to our vendors participating in the Transparency and Consent Framework.
More information
Targeting Cookies
These cookies may be set through our site by our advertising partners. They may be used by those companies to build a profile of your interests and show you relevant adverts on other sites. They do not store directly personal information, but are based on uniquely identifying your browser and internet device. If you do not allow these cookies, you will experience less targeted advertising.
Functional Cookies
These cookies enable the website to provide enhanced functionality and personalisation. They may be set by us or by third party providers whose services we have added to our pages. If you do not allow these cookies then some or all of these services may not function properly.
Performance Cookies
These cookies allow us to count visits and traffic sources so we can measure and improve the performance of our site. They help us to know which pages are the most and least popular and see how visitors move around the site. All information these cookies collect is aggregated and therefore anonymous. If you do not allow these cookies we will not know when you have visited our site, and will not be able to monitor its performance.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Always Active
These cookies are necessary for the website to function and cannot be switched off in our systems. They are usually only set in response to actions made by you which amount to a request for services, such as setting your privacy preferences, logging in or filling in forms. You can set your browser to block or alert you about these cookies, but some parts of the site will not then work. These cookies do not store any personally identifiable information.
Store and/or access information on a device 741 partners can use this purpose
Cookies, device or similar online identifiers (e.g. login-based identifiers, randomly assigned identifiers, network based identifiers) together with other information (e.g. browser type and information, language, screen size, supported technologies etc.) can be stored or read on your device to recognise it each time it connects to an app or to a website, for one or several of the purposes presented here.
Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development 882 partners can use this purpose
Use limited data to select advertising 705 partners can use this purpose
Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device type or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example, to limit the number of times an ad is presented to you).
Create profiles for personalised advertising 561 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service (such as forms you submit, content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about you (for example, information from your previous activity on this service and other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or improve a profile about you (that might include possible interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present advertising that appears more relevant based on your possible interests by this and other entities.
Use profiles to select personalised advertising 562 partners can use this purpose
Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on your advertising profiles, which can reflect your activity on this service or other websites or apps (like the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests and personal aspects.
Create profiles to personalise content 249 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service (for instance, forms you submit, non-advertising content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about you (such as your previous activity on this service or other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or improve a profile about you (which might for example include possible interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present content that appears more relevant based on your possible interests, such as by adapting the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find content that matches your interests.
Use profiles to select personalised content 224 partners can use this purpose
Content presented to you on this service can be based on your content personalisation profiles, which can reflect your activity on this or other services (for instance, the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests and personal aspects. This can for example be used to adapt the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find (non-advertising) content that matches your interests.
Measure advertising performance 806 partners can use this purpose
Information regarding which advertising is presented to you and how you interact with it can be used to determine how well an advert has worked for you or other users and whether the goals of the advertising were reached. For instance, whether you saw an ad, whether you clicked on it, whether it led you to buy a product or visit a website, etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of advertising campaigns.
Measure content performance 390 partners can use this purpose
Information regarding which content is presented to you and how you interact with it can be used to determine whether the (non-advertising) content e.g. reached its intended audience and matched your interests. For instance, whether you read an article, watch a video, listen to a podcast or look at a product description, how long you spent on this service and the web pages you visit etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of (non-advertising) content that is shown to you.
Understand audiences through statistics or combinations of data from different sources 511 partners can use this purpose
Reports can be generated based on the combination of data sets (like user profiles, statistics, market research, analytics data) regarding your interactions and those of other users with advertising or (non-advertising) content to identify common characteristics (for instance, to determine which target audiences are more receptive to an ad campaign or to certain contents).
Develop and improve services 602 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service, such as your interaction with ads or content, can be very helpful to improve products and services and to build new products and services based on user interactions, the type of audience, etc. This specific purpose does not include the development or improvement of user profiles and identifiers.
Use limited data to select content 162 partners can use this purpose
Content presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device type, or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example, to limit the number of times a video or an article is presented to you).
Use precise geolocation data 282 partners can use this special feature
With your acceptance, your precise location (within a radius of less than 500 metres) may be used in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Actively scan device characteristics for identification 150 partners can use this special feature
With your acceptance, certain characteristics specific to your device might be requested and used to distinguish it from other devices (such as the installed fonts or plugins, the resolution of your screen) in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Ensure security, prevent and detect fraud, and fix errors 568 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
Your data can be used to monitor for and prevent unusual and possibly fraudulent activity (for example, regarding advertising, ad clicks by bots), and ensure systems and processes work properly and securely. It can also be used to correct any problems you, the publisher or the advertiser may encounter in the delivery of content and ads and in your interaction with them.
Deliver and present advertising and content 568 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
Certain information (like an IP address or device capabilities) is used to ensure the technical compatibility of the content or advertising, and to facilitate the transmission of the content or ad to your device.
Match and combine data from other data sources 406 partners can use this feature
Always Active
Information about your activity on this service may be matched and combined with other information relating to you and originating from various sources (for instance your activity on a separate online service, your use of a loyalty card in-store, or your answers to a survey), in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Link different devices 351 partners can use this feature
Always Active
In support of the purposes explained in this notice, your device might be considered as likely linked to other devices that belong to you or your household (for instance because you are logged in to the same service on both your phone and your computer, or because you may use the same Internet connection on both devices).
Identify devices based on information transmitted automatically 539 partners can use this feature
Always Active
Your device might be distinguished from other devices based on information it automatically sends when accessing the Internet (for instance, the IP address of your Internet connection or the type of browser you are using) in support of the purposes exposed in this notice.
Save and communicate privacy choices 413 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
The choices you make regarding the purposes and entities listed in this notice are saved and made available to those entities in the form of digital signals (such as a string of characters). This is necessary in order to enable both this service and those entities to respect such choices.