Au xixe s., l’audience des doctrines occultistes était limitée à un public fort restreint. À l’exception des œuvres de Papus et d’Éliphas Lévi, les tirages des traités d’occultisme dépassaient rarement un millier d’exemplaires. Cette situation du marché de ces éditions spécialisées ne changea pratiquement pas jusqu’aux années qui suivirent la Seconde Guerre mondiale, sauf en Allemagne et dans les pays anglo-saxons, où les amateurs de l’occulte ont toujours été plus nombreux que dans les pays méditerranéens.
Ce fut surtout en raison de l’importance accordée à l’astrologie par des hebdomadaires de grande diffusion, puis par des quotidiens, qu’un public sans cesse croissant, depuis 1945, commença de s’intéresser aux phénomènes mystérieux et aux coïncidences inexpliquées par la science. Dans les années 1960, l’horoscope* fit son entrée à la radio. En 1969, il fut distribué par un ordinateur. Au cours de ces dix années, les tirages des ouvrages occultistes ont connu une progression extraordinaire dans presque tous les pays occidentaux. Certains d’entre eux ont dépassé le million d’exemplaires. Ainsi a-t-on assisté à la naissance d’un « occultisme de masse » qui constitue un phénomène psychosociologique dont l’importance est reconnue par tous les observateurs.
P. Chacornac, Éliphas Lévi, rénovateur de l’occultisme en France, 1810-1875 (Chacornac, 1926). / L. de Gérin-Ricard, Histoire de l’occultisme (Payot, 1939). / P. Encausse, Sciences occultes ou Vingt-Cinq Années d’occultisme occidental (Ocia, 1946). / R. Amadou, De l’occultisme (Julliard, 1950). / M. Gillot, Aux portes de l’invisible. De l’initiation égyptienne à l’occultisme moderne (La Baconnière, Neuchâtel, 1968).
océan
Partie du globe occupée continûment par de l’eau de mer.
Propriétés physiques de l’océan
Représentant 71 p. 100 de la surface terrestre, l’océan mondial est partagé en trois grands océans (et plusieurs mers) dont une grande partie est située dans l’hémisphère Sud (fig. 1). Pour des raisons d’ordre pratique, c’est vers l’étude de leur masse d’eau que l’exploration s’est tout d’abord tournée. Plus récemment fut abordée l’étude des fonds grâce au progrès rapide de la technologie océanologique.
L’eau de mer
Composante essentielle de l’hydrosphère (97,5 p. 100), dont elle est le réservoir naturel (v. hydrologie et hydrographie), l’eau de mer s’en différencie par l’animation (courants* océaniques, ondes* océaniques) et trois caractères spécifiques.
Un réservoir thermique
La couche superficielle de l’océan est, en moyenne, de 3 °C plus chaude que l’air qui la surmonte. Par la radiation solaire (la condensation, la conversion de l’énergie cinétique, etc., n’intervenant que faiblement), la surface marine reçoit autant de chaleur que celle des continents. Cependant, grâce aux brassages convectifs (v. courants océaniques), elle peut en stocker jusqu’à une profondeur relativement grande. Par ailleurs, elle la restitue à l’atmosphère de façon : partielle (par évaporation, surtout, et par rayonnement), on dit que son bilan thermique est positif à l’échelle planétaire ; retardée (si l’eau de mer s’échauffe lentement, elle fait de même pour se refroidir). La courbe thermique de l’eau est décalée par rapport à celle de l’air. L’océan est un régulateur thermique d’une remarquable efficacité : il joue le rôle de thermostat en contribuant au maintien de l’équilibre climatique de la planète.
Les amplitudes thermiques, diurne (de 0,5 à 1,6 °C) et saisonnière (de quelques degrés à 15 °C), de l’eau de surface restent donc modérées si on les compare à celles de l’air. Ce n’est qu’en quelques mers épicontinentales et tempérées qu’on observe des oscillations plus fortes. Les températures moyennes superficielles (transcrites sous forme de courbes isothermes) augmentent donc graduellement des pôles (où l’eau est fréquemment prise en glace) jusqu’à l’équateur (où la température dépasse usuellement 25 °C). Cette zonation est parfaitement distincte dans l’hémisphère Sud. Dans l’hémisphère Nord, les courants océaniques, déviés par les continents, perturbent sensiblement le dessin zonal des isothermes. Cette distribution anormale est manifeste sous les hautes latitudes, où les marges orientales (dérives nord-pacifique et nord-atlantique) sont plus tièdes que celles de l’ouest (Oyashio, courant du Labrador) ; sous les latitudes tropicales, on observe les phénomènes inverses (courants du Pérou et des Canaries contre les systèmes du Kuroshio et du Gulf Stream).
En profondeur, on enregistre une diminution rapide de la température à un certain niveau : on appelle thermocline ce fort gradient thermique (fig. 2). On la rencontre à des profondeurs variables selon les zones et les régions, les saisons et les types de temps. Il peut même y en avoir plusieurs, et l’on parle alors de thermocline permanente (en profondeur) et saisonnière (plus proche de la surface). Cette discontinuité limite vers le bas la « couche chaude » soumise directement aux influences externes ; elle est également une frontière biochimique essentielle, car elle conditionne les échanges verticaux entre la surface, où se déroule la photosynthèse, et les eaux plus profondes, généralement plus riches en sels nutritifs. Le reste de la colonne d’eau placée sous la thermocline présente une température constante (dans le temps comme dans l’espace) ou peu s’en faut : elle est de quelques degrés dans les océans, mais sensiblement plus élevée dans les mers, où l’eau de fond a la même température que celle des seuils. L’ensemble des eaux profondes est alimenté par des plongées d’eau qui s’effectuent en des régions bien déterminées, en général les zones subpolaires. À une certaine profondeur, on constate un léger réchauffement de nature adiabatique, mais qui ne porte que sur quelques dixièmes de degré (fig. 2).
>
We Care About Your Privacy
We and our 915 partners store and access personal data, like browsing data or unique identifiers, on your device. Selecting "I Accept" enables tracking technologies to support the purposes shown under "we and our partners process data to provide," whereas selecting "Reject All" or withdrawing your consent will disable them. If trackers are disabled, some content and ads you see may not be as relevant to you. You can resurface this menu to change your choices or withdraw consent at any time by clicking the ["privacy preferences"] link on the bottom of the webpage [or the floating icon on the bottom-left of the webpage, if applicable]. Your choices will have effect within our Website. For more details, refer to our Privacy Policy.
We and our partners process data to provide:
Use precise geolocation data. Actively scan device characteristics for identification. Store and/or access information on a device. Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development.
About Your Privacy
Your Privacy
Targeting Cookies
Functional Cookies
Performance Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Store and/or access information on a device 739 partners can use this purpose
Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development 881 partners can use this purpose
Use precise geolocation data 282 partners can use this special feature
Actively scan device characteristics for identification 150 partners can use this special feature
Ensure security, prevent and detect fraud, and fix errors 567 partners can use this special purpose
Deliver and present advertising and content 568 partners can use this special purpose
Match and combine data from other data sources 408 partners can use this feature
Link different devices 352 partners can use this feature
Identify devices based on information transmitted automatically 540 partners can use this feature
Save and communicate privacy choices 415 partners can use this special purpose
Your Privacy
We process your data to deliver content or advertisements and measure the delivery of such content or advertisements to extract insights about our website. We share this information with our partners on the basis of consent. You may exercise your right to consent, based on a specific purpose below or at a partner level in the link under each purpose. Some vendors may process your data based on their legitimate interests, which does not require your consent. You cannot object to tracking technologies placed to ensure security, prevent fraud, fix errors, or deliver and present advertising and content, and precise geolocation data and active scanning of device characteristics for identification may be used to support this purpose. This exception does not apply to targeted advertising. These choices will be signaled to our vendors participating in the Transparency and Consent Framework.
More information
Targeting Cookies
These cookies may be set through our site by our advertising partners. They may be used by those companies to build a profile of your interests and show you relevant adverts on other sites. They do not store directly personal information, but are based on uniquely identifying your browser and internet device. If you do not allow these cookies, you will experience less targeted advertising.
Functional Cookies
These cookies enable the website to provide enhanced functionality and personalisation. They may be set by us or by third party providers whose services we have added to our pages. If you do not allow these cookies then some or all of these services may not function properly.
Performance Cookies
These cookies allow us to count visits and traffic sources so we can measure and improve the performance of our site. They help us to know which pages are the most and least popular and see how visitors move around the site. All information these cookies collect is aggregated and therefore anonymous. If you do not allow these cookies we will not know when you have visited our site, and will not be able to monitor its performance.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Always Active
These cookies are necessary for the website to function and cannot be switched off in our systems. They are usually only set in response to actions made by you which amount to a request for services, such as setting your privacy preferences, logging in or filling in forms. You can set your browser to block or alert you about these cookies, but some parts of the site will not then work. These cookies do not store any personally identifiable information.
Store and/or access information on a device 739 partners can use this purpose
Cookies, device or similar online identifiers (e.g. login-based identifiers, randomly assigned identifiers, network based identifiers) together with other information (e.g. browser type and information, language, screen size, supported technologies etc.) can be stored or read on your device to recognise it each time it connects to an app or to a website, for one or several of the purposes presented here.
Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development 881 partners can use this purpose
Use limited data to select advertising 703 partners can use this purpose
Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device type or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example, to limit the number of times an ad is presented to you).
Create profiles for personalised advertising 560 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service (such as forms you submit, content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about you (for example, information from your previous activity on this service and other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or improve a profile about you (that might include possible interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present advertising that appears more relevant based on your possible interests by this and other entities.
Use profiles to select personalised advertising 561 partners can use this purpose
Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on your advertising profiles, which can reflect your activity on this service or other websites or apps (like the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests and personal aspects.
Create profiles to personalise content 251 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service (for instance, forms you submit, non-advertising content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about you (such as your previous activity on this service or other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or improve a profile about you (which might for example include possible interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present content that appears more relevant based on your possible interests, such as by adapting the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find content that matches your interests.
Use profiles to select personalised content 226 partners can use this purpose
Content presented to you on this service can be based on your content personalisation profiles, which can reflect your activity on this or other services (for instance, the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests and personal aspects. This can for example be used to adapt the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find (non-advertising) content that matches your interests.
Measure advertising performance 804 partners can use this purpose
Information regarding which advertising is presented to you and how you interact with it can be used to determine how well an advert has worked for you or other users and whether the goals of the advertising were reached. For instance, whether you saw an ad, whether you clicked on it, whether it led you to buy a product or visit a website, etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of advertising campaigns.
Measure content performance 391 partners can use this purpose
Information regarding which content is presented to you and how you interact with it can be used to determine whether the (non-advertising) content e.g. reached its intended audience and matched your interests. For instance, whether you read an article, watch a video, listen to a podcast or look at a product description, how long you spent on this service and the web pages you visit etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of (non-advertising) content that is shown to you.
Understand audiences through statistics or combinations of data from different sources 511 partners can use this purpose
Reports can be generated based on the combination of data sets (like user profiles, statistics, market research, analytics data) regarding your interactions and those of other users with advertising or (non-advertising) content to identify common characteristics (for instance, to determine which target audiences are more receptive to an ad campaign or to certain contents).
Develop and improve services 603 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service, such as your interaction with ads or content, can be very helpful to improve products and services and to build new products and services based on user interactions, the type of audience, etc. This specific purpose does not include the development or improvement of user profiles and identifiers.
Use limited data to select content 162 partners can use this purpose
Content presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device type, or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example, to limit the number of times a video or an article is presented to you).
Use precise geolocation data 282 partners can use this special feature
With your acceptance, your precise location (within a radius of less than 500 metres) may be used in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Actively scan device characteristics for identification 150 partners can use this special feature
With your acceptance, certain characteristics specific to your device might be requested and used to distinguish it from other devices (such as the installed fonts or plugins, the resolution of your screen) in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Ensure security, prevent and detect fraud, and fix errors 567 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
Your data can be used to monitor for and prevent unusual and possibly fraudulent activity (for example, regarding advertising, ad clicks by bots), and ensure systems and processes work properly and securely. It can also be used to correct any problems you, the publisher or the advertiser may encounter in the delivery of content and ads and in your interaction with them.
Deliver and present advertising and content 568 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
Certain information (like an IP address or device capabilities) is used to ensure the technical compatibility of the content or advertising, and to facilitate the transmission of the content or ad to your device.
Match and combine data from other data sources 408 partners can use this feature
Always Active
Information about your activity on this service may be matched and combined with other information relating to you and originating from various sources (for instance your activity on a separate online service, your use of a loyalty card in-store, or your answers to a survey), in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Link different devices 352 partners can use this feature
Always Active
In support of the purposes explained in this notice, your device might be considered as likely linked to other devices that belong to you or your household (for instance because you are logged in to the same service on both your phone and your computer, or because you may use the same Internet connection on both devices).
Identify devices based on information transmitted automatically 540 partners can use this feature
Always Active
Your device might be distinguished from other devices based on information it automatically sends when accessing the Internet (for instance, the IP address of your Internet connection or the type of browser you are using) in support of the purposes exposed in this notice.
Save and communicate privacy choices 415 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
The choices you make regarding the purposes and entities listed in this notice are saved and made available to those entities in the form of digital signals (such as a string of characters). This is necessary in order to enable both this service and those entities to respect such choices.