Une grande partie de l’œuvre d’Abū Nuwās est d’inspiration religieuse. Il ne semble pas que cela soit la conséquence de l’âge, mais plutôt une attitude normale chez un épicurien las du plaisir qui n’assouvit point et de la débauche qui écœure. Peut-être au demeurant est-ce là une forme subtile de la jouissance chez cet homme blasé du plaisir qui le fuit : Te voilà vieux, bonhomme ! et tu n’as pas encore quitté les manières d’un adolescent. La Mort dévore et engloutit les Hommes.
C’est graduellement qu’à lui s’impose l’idée du repentir. Rien dans celui-ci qui ressemble au pessimisme désespéré d’Abū al-‘Atāhiya. Au fond de sa détresse, Abū Nuwās est toujours sûr du pardon et pour lui la repentance finale doit lui valoir le salut : Finie est ma malfaisance, enfuis sont mes plaisirs, depuis que de sa main vieillesse a blanchi ma tête. Non par nos actes nous trouverons salut quand paraîtront les signes sur nos fronts. Or donc en dépit de mes fautes et de mes débordements, j’espère en l’entier pardon de la Divinité.
Plus que d’aucune autre, il est juste de dire que l’œuvre d’Abū Nuwās est l’expression de la société où elle est née. Par ses contrastes, ses outrances, son refus de cultiver l’art pour l’art, elle ne pouvait point susciter une unanimité. À tout le moins, a-t-elle contraint les plus réticents, comme ibn Qutayba, à lui rendre justice. Le réveil du xixe s. devait lui réserver une place d’honneur par tout ce qu’elle contient de fécond dans son refus du conformisme et dans son culte de l’humain.
R. B.
➙ ‘Abbāssides / Arabe (littérature).
W. Ahlwardt, Dīwān des Abū Nuwās, t. I : Die Weinlieder (Greifswald, 1861). / ‘U. Farrūkh, Abū Nuwās, poète d’al-Rachīd et d’al-Amīn (en arabe ; Beyrouth, 1932). / E. Wagner, Abū Nuwās, eine Studie zur arabischen Literatur der frühen Abbasidenzeit (Wiesbaden, 1965).
abysses
Régions océaniques situées entre 2 000 et 6 000 m de profondeur. Ces limites sont conventionnelles, et les chiffres qui les caractérisent ne doivent pas être considérés comme des valeurs absolues, mais comme des ordres de grandeur. (Le terme est presque toujours pris au pluriel, et on lui substitue volontiers celui de zone abyssale.)
La zone abyssale couvre approximativement 80 p. 100 de la surface des océans, soit, toujours approximativement, 56 p. 100 de la surface totale du globe.
Connaissance des abysses
Les premiers contacts de l’homme avec les abysses remontent à un passé récent. Ils ont eu lieu par l’intermédiaire d’instruments simples (lignes plombées, dragues, carottiers) et ne se sont vus méthodiquement organisés et méthodiquement exploités (au point de vue scientifique) qu’au cours et à partir de la fameuse expédition anglaise du Challenger (1872-1876). Depuis cette date, nos connaissances se sont rapidement développées, les principales étapes de leur progression étant : — l’invention et la diffusion du sondage par ultrasons (Première Guerre mondiale) ; — la pénétration directe d’observateurs dans les grandes profondeurs (bathyscaphes, 1953) ; — la généralisation du cinéma et de la télévision sous-marins (à partir de 1955).
Relief et structure des fonds abyssaux
On a cru pendant longtemps que le relief des fonds abyssaux était inexistant et leur structure parfaitement uniforme. En fait, si la pente générale des plaines abyssales est relativement faible (moins de 1 p. 1 000), celles-ci sont entaillées de tranchées profondes (les fosses), parsemées de cônes volcaniques (les guyots) et surtout coupées vers le milieu des océans par de véritables chaînes de montagnes (les dorsales océaniques), dont l’étude a remis à l’honneur sous une forme beaucoup plus élaborée (celle de l’expansion des fonds océaniques) la vieille théorie de Wegener sur la dérive des continents.
Mis à part les points de contact avec la base du talus continental et avec les différents accidents qui viennent d’être signalés, points où l’on enregistre la présence de matériaux soit détritiques, soit d’extrusion, les fonds abyssaux sont toujours recouverts de sédiments épais qui appartiennent à cinq types principaux (deux calcaires, trois siliceux).
Types calcaires
a) Boues à Globigérines (les Globigérines sont des Foraminifères planctoniques). Elles couvrent environ 44 p. 100 des fonds abyssaux ;
b) Boues à Ptéropodes (les Ptéropodes sont de petits Mollusques Tectibranches planctoniques). Environ 2 p. 100 des fonds abyssaux.
Types siliceux
a) Boues à Diatomées (les Diatomées sont des Algues vertes unicellulaires planctoniques). Environ 12 p. 100 des fonds abyssaux ;
b) Boues à Radiolaires (les Radiolaires sont des Protozoaires planctoniques). Environ 2 p. 100 des fonds abyssaux ;
c) Argile rouge des grands fonds. Sa genèse est discutée. Elle est formée de silicate d’alumine en particules extrêmement ténues, mêlées d’éléments minéraux et organiques. Elle couvre environ 35 p. 100 des fonds abyssaux.
Enfin, des nodules de manganèse (auquel sont associés d’autres métaux : cuivre, étain, chrome, nickel, etc.), de la taille d’une balle de tennis à celle d’un gros ballon de plage et sur l’origine desquels l’opinion est, là encore, loin d’être unanime, parsèment les fonds abyssaux. Leur densité, irrégulière, est particulièrement élevée dans certaines régions intertropicales des trois grands océans.
Masses d’eaux abyssales
Les masses d’eaux qui surplombent les fonds abyssaux sont caractérisées par une salinité normale (entre 34 et 35 p. 1 000), une température basse en général (entre – 1 et + 2 °C), une obscurité totale. Depuis les plongées profondes en bathyscaphe, on sait que ces masses d’eaux, calmes dans leur ensemble, ne sont pas complètement immobiles, mais animées de courants parfois assez rapides qui assurent peu à peu leur renouvellement. Ainsi se trouve entretenue une certaine teneur en oxygène, faible certes par rapport à celle des eaux de surface, mais néanmoins suffisante pour assurer la présence de la vie à tous les niveaux.
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