Les Transferts sociaux, numéro spécial de Recherche sociale (1967). / G. Leduc (sous la dir. de), le Transfert social fondement du progrès économique. France, communautés européennes, tiers monde (P. U. F., 1969).
transformateur
Appareil modifiant la tension dans un circuit parcouru par un courant alternatif.
Introduction
Le transport de l’énergie électrique ne peut s’effectuer sans pertes. Ces pertes sont dues à l’échauffement de la ligne de transport. Pour une ligne donnée, on peut montrer que les pertes sont d’autant plus faibles que la tension est élevée. Le transformateur est l’appareil qui, en courant alternatif, permet d’élever la tension fournie par les alternateurs afin de réaliser un transport en haute tension (jusqu’à plusieurs centaines de milliers de volts). Il permet ensuite de ramener cette tension à une valeur plus faible, facile à distribuer sur les lieux mêmes d’utilisation.
Un transformateur est constitué d’un circuit magnétique fermé, formé de tôles ferromagnétiques empilées. Sur les colonnes de ce circuit sont disposés deux enroulements séparés. L’un, B1, est appelé primaire. Il fonctionne comme un récepteur. Le courant I1 qu’il reçoit engendre dans le circuit magnétique une induction alternative dont le flux à travers une section du circuit magnétique est Φ. L’autre, B2, appelé secondaire, est traversé par Φ. Il est donc le siège d’une f.é.m. capable de fournir à un récepteur placé à ses bornes une puissance électrique alternative. Si le circuit magnétique est soigneusement réalisé, le flux traversant une spire est sensiblement le même au primaire et au secondaire. Ainsi, aux bornes d’une spire, il existe la même f.é.m. e au primaire et au secondaire. Soit n1 le nombre de spires du primaire et n2 le nombre de spires du secondaire. La f.é.m. totale est e1 = n1 · e au primaire et e2 = n2 · e au secondaire. Or, e1 est très peu différent de u1, tension appliquée au primaire. De même, e2 est sensiblement égal à u2, tension secondaire. Si U1 et U2 sont les valeurs efficaces de u1 et de u2, on obtient Si l’on néglige les pertes (dont la valeur relative peut être très faible), on peut aussi écrire U
1122
· I = U · I, soit encore m étant appelé rapport de transformation du transformateur. Si m > 1, le transformateur est élévateur de tension ; si m < 1, il est abaisseur de tension. Remarquons que l’intensité est abaissée dans le rapport où est élevée la tension et vice versa.
Lucien Gaulard
Électricien français (Paris 1850 - id. 1888). Il construisit une pile thermochimique et inventa en 1884 les transformateurs.
Chute de tension, rendement
Pratiquement, pour une valeur donnée de U1, la tension U2 a une valeur un peu plus petite que ne le laisse prévoir la relation (1). On appelle chute de tension l’écart entre la valeur U2 donnée par la relation (1) et la valeur U2 réellement obtenue. Cet écart est dû à deux imperfections du transformateur. Tout d’abord, les résistances R1 et R2 des enroulements font que la tension U1 est plus grande que E1 (valeur efficace de e1) et que U2 est plus petite que E2.
De plus, il existe des « fuites magnétiques », et le flux créé par chaque spire du primaire ne traverse pas intégralement les spires du secondaire. La f.é.m. à travers une spire du secondaire est donc plus petite qu’à travers une spire du primaire. La chute de tension observée est pratiquement nulle à vide (I2 = 0) et croît avec le courant secondaire, mais elle dépend également beaucoup du déphasage entre le courant et la tension secondaire (déphasage imposé par le circuit d’utilisation). De même, par suite de l’effet Joule et des pertes par hystérésis et courants de Foucault, la puissance P2 fournie par le secondaire est intérieure à la puissance P1 consommée au primaire. Le quotient est le rendement du transformateur. Il est très bon (0,95 pour les petits transformateurs et jusqu’à 0,99 pour les grosses unités).
Construction
Le circuit magnétique est toujours constitué de tôles minces (de 0,3 à 0,5 mm) isolées les unes des autres par du vernis ou du papier afin de réduire les pertes par courants de Foucault. Les enroulements sont fractionnés et répartis sur les colonnes, où ils sont superposés afin de réduire les fuites magnétiques. Les transformateurs de grande puissance sont, en général, immergés dans un bain d’huile afin d’améliorer le refroidissement. L’huile de refroidissement peut même être conduite à des radiateurs extérieurs, eux-mêmes refroidis par air pulsé.
Utilisation des transformateurs
Les tensions fournies par les alternateurs actuels sont de l’ordre de grandeur de 10 kV. À la sortie de la centrait- de production, la tension est portée à environ 100 kV par un premier transformateur de très grande puissance (plusieurs centaines de mégawatts). À l’arrivée près des zones à forte consommation, elle est abaissée à quelques dizaines de kilovolts dans des « postes de répartition », puis réduite de nouveau par des « postes de transformation » à la valeur nécessaire à chaque utilisateur (distribution urbaine, industrielle, réseaux de traction). Ces diverses fonctions sont réalisées par des transformateurs de puissances variées (depuis quelques centaines de kilowatts jusqu’à quelques kilowatts au niveau de l’usager).
Transformateurs spéciaux
Les réseaux de distribution à grande puissance sont en général des réseaux triphasés. Bien qu’il soit possible de modifier les tensions de tels réseaux par des ensembles de trois transformateurs monophasés, on préfère construire des transformateurs triphasés transformant simultanément les tensions des trois phases. Un transformateur triphasé comporte trois colonnes réunies par deux culasses. Sur chacune des colonnes sont enroulés le primaire et le secondaire d’une même phase. Le circuit se comporte comme l’ensemble de trois circuits montés en étoile. Les flux se superposent donc dans les culasses. Il en résulte une certaine dissymétrie, que l’on peut compenser en augmentant la section de fer des culasses.
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