M. H. Anderson, C. O. Bechtol et R. E. Sollars, Clinical Prosthetics for Physicans and Therapists. A Handbook of Clinical Practices Related to Artificial Limbs (Springfield, Illinois, 1959). / J. Rouot, Prothèse dentaire squelettique (Masson, 1959). / J. Lejoyeux, Prothèse complète (Maloine, 1967 ; nouv. éd., 1969-70, 3 vol.). / H. G. Robert, les Organes artificiels (P. U. F., 1967). / D. Longmore, Spare-Part Surgery, the Surgical Practice of the Future (Garden City, N. Y., 1968 ; trad. fr. Chirurgie et organes de rechange, Larousse, 1970).
protides
Constituants azotés de la matière vivante jouant un rôle important dans les phénomènes biochimiques et comprenant des corps de masse moléculaire variant de quelques dizaines (peptides) à quelques centaines de mille unités (protéines).
Tous les protides possèdent en commun la propriété de libérer, par hydrolyse ménagée, des acides aminés ou aminoacides et, éventuellement, un reste non protidique appelé groupement prosthétique.
Primitivement, on désignait les protides sous le nom générique d’albumines en raison de l’analogie qu’ils présentent avec l’albumine de donner avec l’eau des sols coagulables par la chaleur et les acides, et de fournir par hydrolyse ménagée des substances de dégradation où les mêmes propriétés se retrouvent progressivement atténuées et qu’on désignait sous les noms d’albumoses et de peptones. On sait, aujourd’hui, que les molécules protéiques sont des édifices constitués par des aminoacides reliés entre eux et rattachés ou non à un groupement prosthétique de nature variable.
Structures chimiques des protides
On peut classer les protides en : aminoacides ou acides* aminés, produits ultimes de l’hydrolyse des protides complexes ; peptides, comprenant un petit nombre (oligopeptides) ou un plus grand nombre (polypeptides) d’aminoacides, la limite entre ces deux sous-groupes étant peu marquée ; protéides ou protéines, grosses molécules non reliées (holoprotéides) ou reliées (hétéroprotéides) à un groupement prosthétique.
Aminoacides ou acides aminés (A. A.)
Parmi le nombre infini d’aminoacides théoriquement concevables, une vingtaine seulement se rencontrent dans les organismes vivants. Sauf de rares exceptions (β-alanine), ce sont des acides α-aminés, les atomes de carbone supportant les radicaux acide et azoté étant voisins et reliés entre eux ; cette disposition, créant un carbone asymétrique, fait prévoir plusieurs isomères ; or, il se trouve que la dégradation des protéines ne fournit jamais des isomères différents d’un même A. A., si bien qu’on peut désigner ces substances avec précision par leur nom commun, plus court que leur nom chimique. Il est remarquable que la nature se contente d’un nombre restreint d’A. A. pour édifier les structures moléculaires les plus complexes, seuls variant leur nombre et leurs positions relatives (v. acides aminés).
Peptides
Un peptide résulte de la réunion d’au moins deux A. A., le radical acide de l’un étant fixé au radical aminé de l’autre sous la forme, dite « liaison peptidique », R—CO—NH—R′. Les premières synthèses de peptides ont été réalisées v. 1900 par Emil Fischer (1852-1919) et Ernest Fourneau (1872-1949). Depuis 1930, de nombreux peptides ont pu être préparés par synthèse, opération difficile en raison de la proximité, dans les molécules d’A. A. d’où l’on part, d’une fonction acide et d’une fonction basique, disposition qui entraîne des artifices délicats. À l’origine, ces travaux de synthèse avaient surtout pour objet de vérifier la spécificité des enzymes, mais ils ont permis, en même temps, de préparer certaines hormones de nature polypeptidique (vasopressine, ocytocine) et ont provoqué dans l’industrie pharmaceutique de nombreuses recherches concernant les antibiotiques. L’analyse des peptides, qui conduit aux aminoacides, fait appel à des méthodes chimiques : hydrolyse en milieu acide et en milieu alcalin, réactions enzymatiques. Pour ces dernières réactions, on a recours à de nombreuses enzymes aujourd’hui bien connues, comme la pepsine, la présure, la trypsine, la chymotrypsine, la papaïne, les carbopeptidases, les aminopeptidases... On désigne parfois sous le nom d’oligopeptides ceux des peptides dont les constituants sont peu nombreux, le terme de polypeptides étant réservé aux peptides plus complexes. Nombreux sont les peptides naturels qu’on peut rattacher à l’une ou à l’autre de ces classes. C’est ainsi qu’on rencontre dans les organismes vivants : — des dipeptides, comme la carnausine des muscles, qui joue un rôle important dans les phénomènes de glycolyse (on trouve également des dipeptides dans le règne végétal, par exemple ceux qui sont engagés dans la molécule des alcaloïdes de l’ergot* de seigle) ; — des tripeptides, comme le glutathion, constitué par l’acide glutamique, la cystéine et la glycine, très répandu dans de nombreux organes animaux (rate, surrénale, foie, pancréas, cœur, poumon) et qui intervient dans les processus d’oxydoréduction ; — des octopeptides, comme l’ocytocine, qui provoque les contractions de l’utérus, et la vasopressine, hypertensive et antidiurétique, hormones qu’on peut reproduire par synthèse ; — des polypeptides, comme les hormones dénommées hypertensine (hypertensive), glucagon (hyperglycémiante), insuline* (hypoglycémiante), oxytocine (stimulant la contraction de l’utérus) et certains antibiotiques (tyrothricine, gramicidine).
Protéides ou protéines
• Holoprotéides. La constitution des holoprotéides est analogue à celle des polypeptides, puisque tous ces corps sont susceptibles d’être dégradés en acides aminés. On admet de classer parmi les polypeptides les molécules dont la masse moléculaire ne dépasse pas 10 000, et qui franchissent les membranes de cellulose : l’insuline se trouve ainsi à la limite des polypeptides. Cette limite entre polypeptides et protéides n’est, d’ailleurs, pas absolue puisqu’on connaît des polypeptides de poids 50 000 résultant de la condensation d’un seul aminoacide ! Toutefois, les protéines ont en général un poids atomique très largement supérieur à 10 000. La forme des molécules polypeptidiques diffère essentiellement de celle des molécules protéiques : les premières sont linéaires, résultant d’une file d’aminoacides en liaisons « peptidiques » ; les secondes, incurvées ou repliées sur elles-mêmes, présentent, en sus des liaisons peptidiques ordonnant les polypeptides, des ponts pouvant relier deux molécules d’aminoacides éloignés ou des liaisons salines. En outre, le nombre d’A. A. différents libéré par hydrolyse est plus élevé chez les protéides (de 10 à 20) que chez les polypeptides. Chaque molécule d’holoprotéide possède donc une structure particulière, où l’orientation, la nature et la position réciproque des divers groupements conditionnent ses propriétés biochimiques : c’est sa structure « native », qu’il est très difficile de déterminer en raison de sa fragilité et des modifications que peuvent lui apporter des réactifs trop brutaux.
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