A. Billy, Guillaume Apollinaire (Seghers, 1947). / P. Pia, Apollinaire par lui-même (Éd. du Seuil, coll. « Microcosme », 1954). / P.-M. Adéma, Guillaume Apollinaire (Éd. de la Table Ronde, 1968). / P. Renaud, Lecture d’Apollinaire (l’Âge d’homme, Lausanne, 1969). / J.-C. Chevalier, « Alcools », essai d’analyse des formes poétiques (Lettres modernes, 1970). / C. Morhange-Bégué, « la Chanson du mal-aimé », essai d’analyse structurale et stylistique (Lettres modernes, 1970). / Les Critiques de notre temps et Apollinaire (Garnier, 1971).
apomixie
Reproduction sexuée sans fécondation, observable chez certaines plantes supérieures.
La reproduction sexuée, chez les plantes à graines, se caractérise par la formation puis la fusion de gamètes mâles (contenus dans le grain de pollen) et femelles (contenus dans le sac embryonnaire, lui-même inclus dans l’ovule). La formation des gamètes est précédée d’une réduction chromatique : le nombre normal des chromosomes de l’espèce (2 n) étant ramené à n. La fécondation compense la réduction chromatique (n + n = 2 n).
Lorsque les phénomènes cytologiques et physiologiques de la fécondation sont mis en défaut, différents procédés de compensation assurent cependant la conservation de l’espèce. On groupe sous le nom d’apomixie ces mécanismes variés.
On distingue : la parthénogenèse, ou développement de l’oosphère sans fécondation ; l’apogamie, dans laquelle les embryons se forment à partir d’une autre cellule du sac embryonnaire ; et enfin l’aposporie, où les embryons (appelés embryons adventifs) apparaissent dans le nucelle (tissu de l’ovule qui entoure le sac embryonnaire).
Parthénogenèse
Dans la nature, chez les végétaux, la parthénogenèse véritable — développement de l’oosphère normale après réduction chromatique — n’existe pas. On peut par contre l’obtenir expérimentalement par des procédés analogues à ceux qui sont employés chez les animaux : la division de l’oosphère a pu être observée sans intervention de spermatozoïde, sous l’action des rayons X, d’une élévation de température, de solutions hypertoniques et de substances chimiques (acide butyrique ou acétique).
La pénétration d’un pollen étranger dans un ovaire peut quelquefois, dans la nature, être à l’origine d’un tel développement, les chromosomes du pollen dégénérant rapidement sans assurer de fécondation. C’est ce qui a été obtenu expérimentalement en croisant Solanum nigrum mâle et Solarium luteum femelle. Lorsqu’ils se développent, les embryons ainsi obtenus sont haploïdes (n chromosomes), d’origine maternelle, et la plante qui en dérive, elle aussi haploïde, est toujours stérile, quoique de morphologie plus ou moins normale. En revanche, lorsque la réduction chromatique n’a pas lieu au cours de la formation du sac embryonnaire, l’oosphère possède comme toutes les autres cellules de la plante 2 n chromosomes. Ne pouvant être alors fécondée, l’oosphère compense cette inaptitude par la propriété de se développer parthénogénétiquement. La nature nous offre de nombreux cas où ce type de développement est connu : Antennaria dioïca (Pied-de-chat), Alchimilla alpina (Alchémille), Taraxacum sp. (Pissenlit), Erigeron sp. (Vergerette), Hieracium sp. (Épervière), Thalictrum sp. (Pigamon), Draba verna (Drave), Urtica urens (Ortie), Cannabis sativa (Chanvre), Humulus lupulus (Houblon), Crepis (Crépis).
Apogamie
L’apogamie se produit quand, la fécondation normale ne pouvant se faire (pas de réduction chromatique au début de la formation du sac embryonnaire), d’autres cellules du sac, alors à 2 n chromosomes (synergides, antipodes), donnent sans fécondation des embryons parfaitement viables. Ce phénomène s’observe chez Lilium martagon (Lis des Pyrénées) et Ulmus americana (Orme d’Amérique). Ce phénomène de non-réduction chromatique atteint souvent aussi les organes mâles, dont les anthérozoïdes sont alors diploïdes. La fécondation dans ce cas donne des individus à 4 n chromosomes (tétraploïdes), rarement viables.
La méiose ne pouvant se faire normalement chez les hybrides interspécifiques (pas d’appariement régulier au moment de la prophase), l’apogamie est le mode de reproduction ordinaire chez les genres tels que Rosa Potentilla, Antennaria, Alchimilla, etc.
Aposporie
On place sous ce nom tous les cas de reproduction dans lesquels une cellule du sporophyte (2 n chromosomes) se divise pour constituer sans fécondation un embryon normal et viable à 2 n chromosomes.
C’est le nucelle (tissu diploïde) qui presque toujours chez les Angiospermes est à l’origine de telles formations, et les embryons obtenus sont dits « adventifs » ou encore « nucellaires ». On connaît de tels développements chez les Citrus : Citrus aurantium, Citrus trifoliata. En Europe, l’Euphorbiacée australienne Cœlebogyne ilicifolia n’est représentée que par des pieds femelles, qui forment des graines fertiles dont les embryons adventifs assurent indéfiniment la multiplication. En Australie, où les pieds mâles existent, la fécondation a lieu normalement. L’aposporie a été également retrouvée chez Alchimilla pastoralis, Opuntia vulgaris, Funkia ovata, Nothoscordum fragans, Evonymus americanus. L’Allium odorum peut présenter des embryons qui sont suivant les cas adventifs, apogames et normaux. L’aposporie apparaît comme un terme de passage de la reproduction sexuée à la multiplication végétative.
J.-M. T. et F. T.
aponévrose
Membrane fibreuse, d’épaisseur variable habituellement faible, de couleur blanche, entourant les muscles à la façon d’une gaine pour leur former un étui.
Introduction
L’aponévrose brachiale, par exemple, entoure le bras d’une gaine cylindrique, plus mince en haut qu’en bas et plus épaisse en arrière qu’en avant. Elle est en continuité en haut avec les aponévroses de l’épaule et de la base de l’aisselle, en bas avec l’aponévrose antibrachiale qui entoure les éléments musculaires de l’avant-bras, et dont deux expansions contribuent à former la cloison de séparation entre les deux régions antibrachiales antérieure et postérieure.
De la face profonde de l’aponévrose se détachent des lames fibreuses résistantes, dirigées transversalement : ce sont des cloisons intermusculaires donnant insertion partiellement aux différents groupes musculaires qu’elles séparent les uns des autres (loges antérieure, interne et postérieure de la cuisse).
L’aponévrose présente, en outre, divers renforcements (la bandelette de Maissiat à la face externe de la cuisse) et reçoit des expansions tendineuses qui viennent la renforcer (expansion aponévrotique du biceps).
Sa texture est variable : les fibres longitudinales sont entrecroisées obliquement ou perpendiculairement. Elle peut se prolonger en expansions aponévrotiques, au niveau de la paume de main en particulier : ce sont les bandelettes prétendineuses.
Le rôle de l’aponévrose, outre la séparation des muscles en groupes qui se contractent synergiquement, est de maintenir ceux-ci dans un espace relativement rigide lors des modifications de forme liées à la contraction musculaire.
L’aponévrose n’est certes pas un élément indispensable, mais elle contribue au bon fonctionnement de l’appareil tendino-musculaire.
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