Très féconde pour l’architecture, la période est également riche pour les autres arts plastiques, mais avec moins d’originalité. Le tombeau de don Diogo de Azambuja, à Montemor-o-Velho, érigé avant 1518 par Diogo Pires le Jeune (1491-v. 1530), reste traditionnel. À partir de 1517, les Français Nicolas Chantereine et Jean de Rouen importent la sculpture de la Renaissance. La peinture est dominée par les Flamands, tel Quinten Matsys* dont le retable de la Vierge des douleurs est conservé au musée de Lisbonne. Francisco Henriques († v. 1518), malgré son nom hispanisé, est aussi un Nordique. Il peint le retable du maître-autel de São Francisco d’Évora (musée de Lisbonne) dans la tradition de Hugo Van der Goes. Les peintres portugais, comme Vasco Fernandes († v. 1541), auteur du retable de la cathédrale de Lamego (musée de Lamego), demeurent dans l’orbite flamande. Par contre, l’art des revêtements de murs en carrelages émaillés relève de la tradition de l’islām et annonce la production plus tardive des azulejos. L’art manuélin, nettement caractérisé dans l’architecture, révèle donc de nombreux contacts internationaux à l’aube du xvie s. et n’est pas aussi local qu’on le pensait autrefois.
A. P.
➙ Portugal.
manutention
Action de saisir un objet ou un produit et de le transporter d’un point à un autre à l’intérieur d’un cadre déterminé.
Introduction
Du point de vue physique, toute manutention représente un travail, c’est-à-dire le produit de la force F nécessaire pour provoquer le déplacement recherché par la longueur L dudit déplacement : Cette formule peut encore s’écrire, en considérant que la force F est égale au produit de la masse M transportée par l’accélération γ qu’elle lui imprime, Une accélération ou un déplacement nuls représentent à la fois un stockage et la situation avant et après un déplacement. Toute manutention prend donc naissance et aboutit sur un stockage, l’objet ou le produit manutentionné subissant ou non en ces points une transformation plus ou moins poussée, ce qui n’exclut pas forcément des transformations en cours de déplacement, comme c’est le cas pour les chaînes de fabrication. Dans ces conditions, la manutention représente les déplacements d’un ensemble d’objets ou de produits entre des points d’arrêt imposés (postes d’élaboration, de stockage, de contrôle, etc.), ou encore le cheminement desdits objets et produits entre une origine et une extrémité, le parcours correspondant étant marqué éventuellement par des points d’arrêt fonctionnels.
Les manutentions sont donc inséparables des activités humaines. De plus, elles représentent une dépense d’énergie qu’on évalue en France à 25 p. 100 du produit national brut (PNB) ou encore de 15 à 85 p. 100 du prix des objets manufacturés.
Historique
Pendant toute la préhistoire, les manutentions se résument à des opérations de levage, de portage, et de dépose, la préhension des objets étant essentiellement manuelle.
La première évolution notable se situe en Égypte, vers 2500 av. J.-C., avec le chadouf, sorte de potence mobile et articulée permettant la « sommation des efforts ». Cet appareil fut utilisé dans la construction des pyramides. Environ dix siècles plus tard apparaît en Assyrie la roue, avec la possibilité de remplacer le portage par le roulage. Puis les Grecs étudient la cinématique des appareils simples, comme la poulie, le vérin et le levier, dont Archimède* devait dire que, moyennant un point d’appui suffisant, il permettrait de soulever le monde.
Au Moyen Âge, la construction des cathédrales nécessite la mise au point de treuils, de roues élévatrices et de grues à tour. On assiste parallèlement à l’organisation des manutentions, lesquelles s’effectuent suivant un ordonnancement prédéterminé. Cette tendance planificatrice s’accentue pendant la Renaissance, l’une de ses manifestations caractéristiques étant l’érection à Rome, en 1586, sur la place Saint-Pierre, de l’obélisque, érection pour laquelle cinquante-deux opérations avaient été prévues, chacune d’elles étant commandée par une sonnerie de trompettes.
Au xviiie s., les arsenaux utilisent couramment des chèvres et des crémaillères pour la mise en place des tubes de canon sur leurs affûts. À partir du xixe s., le développement industriel, dû à la découverte de la machine à vapeur, puis à celle de l’électricité, entraîne un nouvel essor des manutentions. Le xxe s. voit l’apparition d’appareils largement automatisés et même informatisés, les ordres n’étant plus transmis par un homme, mais par un ordinateur. Dans un certain nombre de cas, ces appareils épousent les cycles de fabrication, tandis que leur juxtaposition ordonnée crée de véritables systèmes. Considérée longtemps comme un art, la manutention devient une science qu’on peut analyser suivant ses principaux aspects : données de base, mouvements à effectuer avant de rechercher les appareils capables de répondre à ces deux exigences et contraintes qui en résultent.
Données
Ce sont : — l’objet ou le produit à manutentionner ; — le cadre dévolu aux manutentions prescrites ; — les modalités de fonctionnement desdites manutentions.
Objet ou produit à manutentionner
Celui-ci peut se présenter sous forme de charge isolée, de vrac ou de fluide.
• Charge isolée. Elle se caractérise essentiellement par sa matière constitutive, sa forme, son poids et sa valeur. La forme pose le problème de la préhension, certaines charges ne pouvant être saisies que moyennant des adaptations appropriées, telle l’adjonction d’anneaux ou de crochets. De son côté, le poids délimite le seuil du partage homme-machine, un individu normal ne pouvant guère manipuler des charges supérieures à 50 kg et la sommation des efforts musculaires étant réservée à un nombre limité de mouvements simples, comme le tiré à la corde.
• Vrac. Il correspond soit à un ensemble de charges isolées en désordre, comme un tas de pavés, soit à une masse de produits pulvérulents, classés en fonction de leur dureté et démunis d’emballage. À la notion de forme propre aux charges isolées se substitue celle d’informité, dont le degré est caractérisé par les angles de déjection et de talus. Certains produits pulvérulents possèdent en outre la qualité de se fluidifier, c’est-à-dire de s’aérer en se laissant traverser par un courant de gaz à faible vitesse. Le produit fluidifié tend alors à se comporter comme un fluide : l’angle du cône de déjection tend vers zéro, et il se produit une chute de densité accompagnée d’un gonflement. Mais cette fluidité demeure fugitive et disparaît lorsque cesse l’aération, soit progressivement, soit brusquement si la pression absolue environnant le produit subit une chute brutale.
• Fluides. La manutention des fluides englobe non seulement les liquides et les gaz purs, mais encore ces derniers mélangés à des produits pulvérulents, avec la possibilité de fonctionner en phase diluée ou en phase dense, c’est-à-dire avec absence ou non de dépôts dans les conduites.
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