Figure de premier plan sur la scène internationale, personnage à la fois rassurant et protecteur aux yeux de ses compatriotes avec son air tout droit sorti de la « belle époque édouardienne », grand maître dans l’art de l’esquive et de l’ambiguïté tout en sachant opiniâtrement mener sa barque là où il l’entend. Macmillan a su en même temps faire opérer à la Grande-Bretagne et au Commonwealth une reconversion politique de première grandeur pour s’adapter au nouvel équilibre des forces dans le monde.
Cependant, les dernières années de son gouvernement sont assombries par les déceptions et les échecs : fêlures et récriminations dans le parti conservateur, stagnation de l’économie, rupture de l’Afrique du Sud avec le Commonwealth, refus hautain par le général de Gaulle de la candidature britannique au Marché commun. Dans ce climat de lente décomposition, le scandale Profumo au printemps 1963 vient ajouter à la lassitude de l’opinion, à l’usure du Premier ministre et au discrédit du gouvernement. En octobre 1963, un accident de santé contraint Macmillan à remettre à regret sa démission et à prendre une retraite politique définitive.
F. B.
➙ Conservateur (parti) / Grande-Bretagne.
A. Sampson, Macmillan : A Study in Ambiguity (Londres, 1967).
maçonnerie
Ouvrage en moellons, en pierres de taille, en briques, en pierres naturelles ou artificielles, hourdé au moyen d’un mortier à base, le plus souvent, d’un liant hydraulique (chaux ou ciment).
Il existe aussi des maçonneries de pierres sèches, sans mortier de liaison : telles sont les maçonneries de puisards ou les bases de puits de captage de nappes aquifères, ou de drainage de murs de soutènement, ainsi que de certains perrés de rivières. Certaines maçonneries sont hourdées au plâtre, mais leur importance est minime. Aux maçonneries proprement dites se rattachent les chapes et les dallages en mortier de ciment.
Matériaux utilisés en maçonnerie
Les ouvrages de génie civil édifiés en maçonnerie font appel d’abord aux moellons, bruts ou taillés, aux pierres de taille, et aussi aux briques, aux blocs artificiels et aux pierres artificielles en béton de ciment.
• Les moellons sont extraits des meilleurs bancs de carrière et doivent être durs, sans fils et non gélifs.
Les moellons bruts ont plus de 10 cm dans leur plus petite dimension, et 20 cm de queue pour les massifs ou 30 cm pour les parements. Dans ce dernier cas, les moellons bruts ne doivent présenter ni saillie ni creux de plus de 3 cm.
Les moellons taillés sont utilisés pour constituer des parements de massifs, de perrés ou de voussoirs. Les moellons pour parements « à joints incertains » (opus incertum) ne doivent avoir ni angle aigu de moins de 60° ni angle rentrant.
• Les pierres de taille, qui doivent rendre un son clair sous le marteau, ont les formes et les dimensions indiquées par les dessins d’appareils. Tous les parements vus sont entourés d’une ciselure de 2 à 3 cm le long des arêtes vives. Les pierres de taille sont en général bouchardées.
• Les briques sont soit en terre cuite, de couleur rouge, soit en laitier moulé que l’on peut teinter ; il existe aussi des briques silico-calcaires, blanches ou teintées.
• Les pierres artificielles doivent, pour pouvoir être employées, avoir été fabriquées depuis plus de 28 jours, et des conditions de résistance leur sont généralement imposées.
• Les carreaux en terre cuite ou produits céramiques doivent être à grain fin, bien cuits, durs, sonores, non gélifs, bien moulés et d’une épaisseur uniforme.
Exécution des travaux et modes de mise en œuvre
Les pierres et moellons doivent être arrosés à grande eau sur le tas, un peu avant l’emploi. Dans les temps secs, les maçonneries sont arrosées légèrement, mais fréquemment. Elles doivent être préservées contre la sécheresse, la pluie ou la gelée par des planches ou des nattes, humides s’il y a lieu. On ne doit pas appliquer une maçonnerie nouvelle sur une ancienne avant que les surfaces de jonction de celle-ci ne soient nettoyées, arrosées et lavées si nécessaire. Le mortier doit toujours être déposé dans des auges et non sur les maçonneries. Si on doit interrompre temporairement des maçonneries en cours d’exécution, la partie supérieure doit être protégée par des paillassons ou une couche de sable de 10 cm.
Mise en œuvre des moellons bruts
Les moellons sont posés à bain de mortier, à la main, et serrés par glissement de manière que le mortier reflue en surface par tous les joints. Ils sont frappés et tassés au marteau ; ceux qui cassent sont repris, nettoyés et réemployés avec du nouveau mortier. Les joints et intervalles sont garnis d’éclats de pierre que l’on enfonce et que l’on serre, sauf s’il s’agit de joints de parement.
Les murs d’une épaisseur ne dépassant pas 40 cm sont édifiés en disposant les moellons bruts de manière à bien lier les deux parements entre eux. La liaison est renforcée par des pierres formant parpaings, à raison de deux par mètre carré.
Mise en œuvre des moellons taillés
Les parements sont exécutés soit à joints réguliers, soit à joints incertains (opus incertum).
Pour les parements à joints réguliers, les moellons sont mis en place par assises horizontales réglées, correspondant aux lits de la pierre. On s’arrange pour que la différence de hauteur de deux assises voisines n’excède pas le quart de la plus petite assise. Les moellons taillés sont posés à bain de mortier, par « carreaux et boutisses », et, pour mieux assurer la liaison des parements avec le reste de la maçonnerie, on place par mètre carré au moins une boutisse dont la queue excède de 20 cm la queue des autres boutisses. Les joints des assises superposées doivent être en découpe de 10 cm au moins.
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