L’Écossais Alexander Mackenzie, qui s’était déjà illustré en descendant le grand fleuve portant son nom, avait également franchi les Rocheuses en 1792-93. Mais la reconnaissance détaillée de ces montagnes, inaugurée par l’Américain Meriwether Lewis (1804-1806), sera l’œuvre du xixe s. et de la ruée vers le Far West. Quant au Grand Nord, il ne scia vraiment connu qu’au xxe s. (v. Arctique). En Amérique latine, enfin, l’ère de l’exploration scientifique et systématique, inaugurée par La Condamine, sera poursuivie par les périples
d’Alexander von Humboldt effectués avec Aimé Bonpland dans « les régions équinoxiales du Nouveau Continent » (1799-1804).
S. L.
Histoire
V. Amérique latine, Amérique précolombienne, et au nom des différents États.
J. N. L. Baker, A History of Geographical Discovery and Exploration (Londres, 1931 ; nouv. éd., 1937 ; trad. fr. Histoire des découvertes géographiques et des explorations, Payot, 1949). / J. Babelon, l’Amérique des conquistadores (Hachette, 1947). / Ch.-A. Julien, les Voyages de découverte et les premiers établissements (P. U. F., 1948). / J. Descola, les Conquistadors (Fayard, 1954). / P. Chaunu, l’Expansion européenne du xiiie au xve siècle (P. U. F., coll. « Nouvelle Clio », 1969) ; Conquête et exploitation des nouveaux mondes (P. U. F., coll. « Nouvelle Clio », 1969). / H. Deschamps, Histoire des explorations (P. U. F., coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1969). / Stage international d’études humanistes, la Découverte de l’Amérique. Esquisse d’une synthèse (Vrin, 1969). / M. Mahn-Lot, la Découverte de l’Amérique (Flammarion, 1970).
Amérique latine
Ensemble des pays américains qui, du Mexique au Chili et à l’Argentine, ont été colonisés par les Espagnols ou les Portugais.
Histoire
Vingt nations indépendantes, « vingt Amériques latines », toutes parentes par les langues et la culture, sont-elles assez semblables pour faire une Amérique latine ? Le débat n’est pas près de finir entre les partisans de l’unité et ceux de la diversité ; le mieux encore, c’est de s’en remettre aux Latino-Américains, qui, contre l’Amérique anglo-saxonne, s’affirment unis — 250 millions d’hommes entre le 32e degré de lat. N. et le 54e degré de lat. S., héritiers des grandes civilisations précolombiennes des plateaux, héritiers des empires ibériques, luttant aujourd’hui pour développer un continent immense et tropical. L’Amérique latine est une pour la première fois au xvie s., par la conquête : elle naît du choc entre les mondes indiens et des mondes ibériques ; elle naît, métisse, au cours d’une longue histoire coloniale qui dure 350 ans et qui n’a pas fini de peser sur le présent. L’héritage colonial est un facteur d’unité étonnante entre vingt pays situés en Amérique du Nord (le Mexique), en Amérique centrale, en Amérique du Sud, riches et pauvres, grands et petits, peuplés de Blancs surtout, ou principalement de métis et d’Indiens, de mulâtres et d’Africains. L’héritage colonial vaut qu’on s’y arrête ; c’est le soubassement invisible du monde actuel.
La colonie
La conquête
La conquête de l’Amérique fut un fait espagnol, car le Portugal s’intéressait trop aux Indes orientales pour se lancer dans une nouvelle aventure, et c’est presque par hasard que le Brésil lui échut en partage. C’est en 1519 que la véritable conquête commence, lorsque Hernán Cortés, désavoué par ses chefs, débarque au Mexique. Avec 600 hommes, 16 chevaux et 10 canons, il réalise le prodige de subjuguer la Confédération aztèque (Mexico-Tenochtitlán tombe le 13 août 1521), puis, mettant les armées vaincues à son service, de réaliser la conquête de tout le Mexique. Cela ne suffit d’ailleurs pas au héros, qui poursuit un grand projet, celui de conquérir et de christianiser la Chine. Le Mexique n’est qu’un commencement, et Cortés cherche vainement le passage du Nord-Ouest. La conquête de l’Amérique du Sud présente les mêmes caractères que celle du Mexique : un empire à abattre, des civilisations brillantes, un conquérant énergique, Francisco Pizarro, qui, avec une poignée d’hommes, réussit, en deux ans, à se rendre maître de l’Empire inca. Puis les vainqueurs s’entre-déchirèrent pour le plus grand profit de l’autorité du roi d’Espagne. Au Pérou comme au Mexique, l’aventure se termine par l’organisation administrative. En moins de trente ans, les Espagnols ont terminé la conquête ; les Portugais n’occupent qu’un petit liséré le long de l’Atlantique. Entre la côte portugaise et les Andes espagnoles subsiste un vide immense, que les Portugais occuperont petit à petit, sans heurt, créant ce qui est le Brésil actuel. Événement qui passera inaperçu, mais qui est lourd de conséquences. Un monde qui ne paraissait devoir être qu’espagnol sera ibérique, espagnol et portugais. La conquête des Indes occidentales est terminée, le temps des conquistadores est passé, mais les trente années de la conquête ont marqué le continent d’une manière qui va encore être accentuée par les siècles de la colonie.
Le système colonial
Rien ne ressemble plus au système espagnol que le système portugais ; point n’est besoin de les distinguer, d’autant plus qu’au moment où le Brésil commence à se développer le Portugal et l’Espagne sont groupés sous la même couronne (1580-1640). Si, de tous les systèmes coloniaux, l’ibérique a été le plus remarquable et si l’on peut le comparer à l’Empire romain, c’est que les huit siècles qui ont été nécessaires à la Reconquista sur les Arabes et à la reconstruction du pays ont préparé les Espagnols aux problèmes américains. Dès les premiers moments de la conquête, deux tendances opposées apparaissent, et, sous des formes diverses, elles n’ont jamais disparu : les créoles, les Espagnols établis en Amérique, puis leurs descendants, veulent s’enrichir et dominer en tirant le parti maximal de la force de travail indigène, quitte à réduire les vaincus en esclavage ; le roi, son administration et le clergé régulier, au contraire, veulent, pour faire le salut des Indiens, les soustraire à l’influence néfaste et à la domination des créoles ; les théologiens élaborent une justification de la conquête par l’évangélisation des Indiens, le « peuple angélique », qui est le point de départ d’une condamnation radicale de l’exploitation. La violence de la conquête ne se pardonnera que si elle apporte un plus grand bien. Ces contradictions entre la soif de l’or et l’esprit de croisade ont parfois tourmenté le même homme : c’est le cas de Cortés, dont le testament reflète les remords. Les souverains espagnols et leurs vice-rois se sont fixé pour but la conversion des Indiens à la vraie foi et leur assimilation à la civilisation chrétienne du monde méditerranéen. Les créoles ont résisté, parfois violemment, à cette politique, qu’ils considéraient comme erronée et catastrophique, et ont pris l’habitude de désobéir tranquillement selon la formule obedezco pero no cumplo (j’obéis mais je n’accomplis pas). C’est au conflit entre ces deux tendances que l’on doit de si bien connaître le monde colonial, car la polémique a permis le savoir ; c’est en partie à cause de cela que le système espagnol a été injustement condamné, jugé avec une sévérité excessive par ce que les historiens espagnols appellent la « légende noire ». Celle-ci a pour fondement précisément l’activité humanitaire, paternaliste, du pouvoir, qui a voulu connaître les abus et qui a trouvé des serviteurs pour s’en indigner, le plus célèbre étant Bartolomé de Las Casas (1474-1566), témoin de la conquête, qui a passé sa vie à défendre les Indiens et à dénoncer l’iniquité ; c’est dans sa Très Brève Relation de la destruction des Indes (1542) que la légende noire a trouvé sa source. Les philosophes allaient renchérir, et ce n’est que l’historiographie récente qui a pu réhabiliter, sans oublier les horreurs de la conquête et les ombres du système, le long effort de la Couronne en faveur de ses sujets indiens. Si l’on faisait la comparaison entre le système espagnol et les empires coloniaux européens de l’époque contemporaine, l’issue n’en serait pas favorable à ces derniers. La légende noire nous dit toutes les ombres en cachant soigneusement les rayons.
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