De plus en plus, les travaux de forage sont confiés à des entreprises spécialisées qui offrent leurs services aux propriétaires ou concessionnaires des terrains à forer. Cela atténue les « dents de scie » dans les programmes de forage. Chaque année, dans le monde, il se fore près de 100 000 km de profondeur totale de puits avec un prix de revient, certes très variable, mais de l’ordre de 1 500 F le mètre foré sur terre et 10 000 F/m en mer (1976). Depuis un siècle, l’ensemble des puits réalisés par l’industrie pétrolière atteindrait, s’ils étaient mis bout à bout, plus de deux millions de kilomètres, de quoi transpercer 160 fois la terre de part en part.
A.-H. S.
➙ Gisement / Offshore / Pétrole / Prospection.
Le Forage aujourd’hui (Technip, 1970 ; 3 vol.). / Forage Rotary (Technip, 1970 ; 4 vol. parus). / K. Herrmann, Précis de forage des roches (Dunod, 1971).
Foraminifères
Protozoaires de la classe des Rhizopodes, pour la plupart marins, essentiellement caractérisés par une coquille recouverte d’une couche cytoplasmique d’où émergent de fins pseudopodes granuleux et anastomosés.
Le cycle biologique des Foraminifères comporte une alternance de générations, dont l’une aboutit à la formation de gamètes. Par leur test, ils contribuent de façon importante à la formation de sédiments. Ils sont parmi les plus anciens fossiles connus. Beaucoup d’entre eux atteignent une taille appréciable pour des unicellulaires, de l’ordre du millimètre en moyenne, et parfois de plusieurs.
Le test
Le test comporte toujours au moins une large ouverture, bouche ou foramen. Celui des Foraminifères les plus primitifs, souple mais résistant, qualifié de chitinoïde, est seulement fait d’un feutrage de fibrilles, de nature protéique vraisemblablement. Chez d’autres (Foraminifères arénacés), ce feutrage agglutine des particules étrangères (grains de sable ou fragments de squelette minéral), souvent d’une façon sélective et selon un arrangement déterminé. Cependant, chez la plupart de ces Protozoaires, l’imprégnation de cette trame par une substance minérale est d’origine endogène. Exceptionnellement, il s’agit de silice, et très généralement d’un précipité de cristaux de calcite. Ces cristaux peuvent être jointifs (Foraminifères imperforés), mais, plus souvent, ils ménagent par places d’étroits orifices assurant la communication directe entre endo- et ectoplasme (Foraminifères perforés). Au cours de la croissance du Protiste, le test peut s’agrandir par toute sa surface, en augmentant par conséquent de volume (test monothalame, fait d’une seule chambre), ou, au contraire, s’adjoindre successivement de nouvelles loges (test polythalame). L’ancien foramen sert alors à la communication avec la nouvelle loge, où se trouve ménagé le nouveau foramen. Les différentes loges se disposent entre elles de façon déterminée : elles peuvent être alignées à la suite les unes des autres, se répartir en une ou deux séries selon une spirale, une hélice... Les ornementations variées de leur surface, des différenciations particulières au niveau du foramen constituent des caractères spécifiques. Les tests calcaires sont d’un grand intérêt paléontologique ; certaines lignées ont subi, au cours des temps géologiques, une évolution importante, donc relativement rapide, et la détermination de leurs représentants permet une datation précise du sédiment dans lequel on les trouve. À l’opposé, certaines espèces n’ont évolué que très lentement, et leur comparaison avec les formes actuelles donne une idée des conditions écologiques de l’endroit où elles vivaient. Les variations de leur répartition géographique, leur lente migration par conséquent sont susceptibles de renseigner sur l’évolution de ces conditions écologiques.
Les parties molles
Les organites cellulaires (un ou plusieurs noyaux, mitochondries, dictyosomes, glyoxysomes, lamelles annelées) se localisent à l’intérieur du test, au sein d’un endoplasme chargé d’enclaves exogènes (proies, Péridiniens symbiotiques appelés Xanthelles) ou endogènes (graisses, pigments...). L’ectoplasme, fluide, est abondant au niveau du foramen et revêt le test d’une mince couche. Il en émerge une multitude de pseudopodes du type granuloréticulé, tout à fait caractéristiques. Ils sont le siège de courants cyloplasmiques qui charrient des granules faisant hernie à leur surface ; en s’anastomosant, ils constituent un réseau en perpétuel remaniement. Ce réseau, dont les dimensions peuvent atteindre plusieurs fois celles du test, fonctionne comme un piège qui agglutine les proies ; chez les espèces benthiques, il assure la fixation et éventuellement la locomotion ; pour les formes pélagiques, il augmente la flottabilité. C’est également ce système pseudopodial qui est responsable de la construction des nouvelles loges chez les espèces polythalames : à l’aide de particules exogènes, elles construisent une muraille provisoire servant en quelque sorte de moule pour la nouvelle loge, qu’elles réalisent en tapissant la face interne de matériaux endogènes.
Reproduction
À la suite d’un certain nombre de divisions nucléaires successives sans division du cytoplasme s’individualisent soit de petits éléments bi- ou triflagellés, soit de petites Amibes nues. Dans le premier cas, il s’agit de gamètes, et l’individu qui leur donne naissance est un gamonte. Des gamètes, morphologiquement identiques mais issus d’individus différents (hétérogamie physiologique), fusionnent deux à deux (fécondation), formant un zygote. Ce dernier se développe, sécrète un test et pousse des pseudopodes, devient un schizonte, qui sera à l’origine de la production des petites Amibes, schizozoïtes ou embryons. Le schizonte est diploïde, la dernière division schizogonique de celui-ci est une méiose, les gamontes et les gamètes sont haploïdes. Il y a donc une alternance de générations, qui se traduit souvent par des différences morphologiques : chez les polythalames, la première loge du test des schizontes est plus petite (individus microsphériques) que celle des gamontes (individus macrosphériques).
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