Afin de dépister cette souffrance fœtale dans l’utérus, un certain nombre de techniques permettant d’explorer de façon de plus en plus précise les conditions de vie du fœtus ont été mises au point ces dernières années. Ces techniques permettent dans certains cas de faire le diagnostic in utero d’affections touchant le fœtus et ses annexes (enveloppes et placenta). Le fœtus au sein de l’utérus maternel est en effet devenu plus « accessible ». Parmi ces techniques, certaines sont encore du domaine de la recherche, telles la mesure du débit sanguin utérin et la ponction biopsique du placenta. D’autres sont exploitées déjà, selon le degré d’équipement des centres obstétricaux : le dosage de l’œstriol semble être un des tests les plus directs de la vitalité fœtale, car l’œstriol dosé dans les urines de la mère semble provenir pour plus de 90 p. 100 de la surrénale du fœtus ; la mise en évidence et l’enregistrement de l’activité cardiaque du fœtus fait appel soit à l’électrocardiographie, soit à la phonocardiographie, soit aux ultrasons ; enfin, le liquide amniotique peut être étudié soit indirectement, grâce à l’amnioscopie, qui permet d’en observer sa couleur et sa transparence, soit directement, par ponction amniotique, qui en permet une étude complète physico-chimique et cytologique.
Au cours de l’accouchement, les méthodes d’exploration sont moins nombreuses, mais serrent de plus près la réalité : à l’enregistrement du cœur fœtal, qui permet une surveillance constante, s’ajoute la mesure du pH sanguin fœtal, l’acidose apparaissant comme un des signes les plus fidèles de l’hypoxie (manque d’oxygène) fœtale.
Enfin, cette accessibilité du fœtus permet maintenant de pratiquer des exsanguino-transfusions fœtales en cours de grossesse et d’envisager pour l’avenir le dépistage, voire le traitement de certaines maladies héréditaires du fœtus pendant la durée de la grossesse.
Ph. C.
➙ Accouchement / Embryon / Grossesse.
foie
Organe abdominal traversé par le sang issu de l’intestin et qui exerce un contrôle multiple sur la composition chimique du sang circulant.
Généralités
Le foie est le plus volumineux viscère des Vertébrés. Il occupe la partie antérieure de la cavité générale. Chez les Oiseaux et les Mammifères pourvus d’un diaphragme séparant cette cavité en cavités thoracique et abdominale, il est situé dans cette dernière, immédiatement au contact du diaphragme, dont il épouse la forme. Il est relié au duodénum par un ou plusieurs canaux hépatiques excrétant la bile, sur le trajet desquels se différencie généralement une vésicule biliaire. Outre le sang artériel apporté par une ou plusieurs artères hépatiques, il reçoit du sang veineux issu des capillaires intestinaux par une veine porte qui se capillarise de nouveau dans le foie. Le sang afférent de ces deux dernières sources est repris par une ou plusieurs veines hépatiques efférentes qui le ramènent au cœur.
Origine et développement
Le foie provient d’un bourgeonnement ventral de l’épithélium intestinal antérieur (de 50 à 55 heures d’incubation chez le Poulet, 4e semaine de gestation chez l’Homme). Le bourgeon prolifère activement dans le mésentère ventral en une série de cordons épithéliaux, ébauche du tissu hépatique. La partie juxta-intestinale du bourgeon se creuse en canal hépatique. Un bourgeonnement latéral de ce canal représente le canal cystique, renflé à son extrémité en vésicule biliaire. Au-delà, le canal hépatique devient le canal cholédoque, débouchant dans le duodénum.
Au cours de leur développement, les cordons épithéliaux de l’ébauche hépatique viennent au contact des veines vitellines, qui ramènent le sang du sac vitellin (ou de l’intestin) au cœur. Ils les entourent et les fragmentent en une série de capillaires irréguliers constituant le système porte-hépatique. La partie préhépatique des veines vitellines devient la veine porte hépatique, située entre deux séries de capillaires (intestinaux et hépatiques). La partie posthépatique devient les veines hépatiques (ou sus-hépatiques).
Le mésenchyme, interposé entre le réseau de capillaires veineux et le tissu épithélial, se différencie en cellules sanguines souches, qui vont engendrer surtout des globules rouges. Cette activité hématopoïétique est généralement limitée à la période embryonnaire. Elle peut exceptionnellement se maintenir chez l’adulte (Poissons Téléostéens, Amphibiens Urodèles, Tortues).
Structure
Le foie est constitué d’une masse de cellules épithéliales, le parenchyme hépatique, traversé par les capillaires veineux du système porte. Ce parenchyme est disposé en un ensemble de lames, le muralium, faites d’une épaisseur de cellules chez les Mammifères et quelques Oiseaux, de deux chez les autres Vertébrés. Les espaces compris entre ces lames constituent les lacunes hépatiques, disposées en un véritable labyrinthe et occupées par les capillaires sanguins.
Notion de lobule hépatique
Chez un tout petit nombre de Mammifères (Porc, Ours, Dromadaire), des cloisons conjonctives apparaissent après la naissance et divisent le parenchyme hépatique en unités prismatiques centrées sur les extrémités des veines hépatiques. Cette structure ne se retrouve chez aucun autre Vertébré. Toutefois, chez la plupart des Mammifères, une lobulation inconstante peut apparaître sous l’influence des phénomènes hydrodynamiques de la circulation sanguine, par suite de la disposition radiaire des capillaires et des lames du parenchyme autour des veines hépatiques ou des veines portes.
La cellule hépatique
Elle est polyédrique, et ses faces sont de deux types. Celles qui sont au contact des capillaires sanguins sont séparées de la paroi de ceux-ci par des espaces péricapillaires dans lesquels la membrane plasmique se soulève en microvillosités. Celles qui sont au contact d’une autre cellule hépatique ménagent entre elles des espaces tubulaires de 0,5 à 1 μ de diamètre, les canalicules biliaires, dans lesquels la bile est sécrétée.
Au point de vue ultrastructural, la cellule hépatique ne se distingue que par la présence de quantités souvent importantes de glycogène en particules de 300 à 500 Å de diamètre, associées au réticulum endoplasmique lisse, au niveau d’aires cytoplasmiques relativement dépourvues d’autres organites.
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