H. M. Chadwick, The Heroic Age (Cambridge, 1912 ; 2e éd., 1926). / G. Dumézil, Légendes sur les Narres (Champion, 1930) ; le Livre des héros (Gallimard, 1965) ; Mythe et épopée (Gallimard, 1968-1971 ; 2 vol.) ; Heur et malheur du guerrier (P. U. F., 1969) ; Du mythe au roman (P. U. F., 1971). / R. Carpenter, Folk Tale, Fiction and Saga in the Homeric Epics (Berkeley, 1946). / C. M. Bowra, Heroic Poetry (Londres, 1952 ; 2e éd., 1961). / J. Cazeneuve, Les dieux dansent à Cibola (Gallimard, 1957). / R. A. Stein, Recherches sur l’épopée et le barde au Tibet (P. U. F., 1959). / G. S. Kirk, The Songs of Homer (Cambridge, 1962). / J. de Vries, Heroic Songs and Heroic Legend (Londres, 1963). / D. Ward, The Divine Twins : an Indo-European Myth in Germanic Tradition (Berkeley, 1968). / J. Puhvel, Myth and Law among the Indo-Europeans (Berkeley, 1970).
Équateur
En esp. Ecuador, État de l’Amérique du Sud.
L’Équateur est un État de l’Amérique andine, le plus petit en superficie. Comme la Colombie et le Pérou, il appartient à trois grands milieux naturels : la plaine pacifique, la montagne andine et le bassin de la haute Amazone, auquel se rattachent les basses terres orientales. La population traditionnelle s’est installée presque exclusivement dans les Andes ; les migrations se dirigent en revanche aujourd’hui vers la plaine côtière. L’Équateur, dont les ressources se limitent à quelques grandes cultures d’exportation, a un des plus bas niveaux de vie de l’Amérique du Sud.
Les milieux naturels
La région andine, ou Sierra, se divise ici en deux grandes chaînes, Cordillère occidentale et Cordillère orientale. La Cordillère occidentale, plus récente, est moins élevée. Elle porte des volcans importants, dont le plus haut sommet des Andes équatoriennes, le Chimborazo. Dans la Cordillère orientale, ou Cordillera Real, l’altitude moyenne est plus élevée. Entre ces deux chaînes s’étend un haut plateau dont la largeur ne dépasse jamais 70 km et dont l’altitude moyenne avoisine 2 500 m. Il comprend une série de bassins, dont la plupart sont drainés vers le Pacifique. Les Andes tombent brusquement à l’ouest sur la plaine. Celle-ci est formée d’un alignement de collines et de la vaste baie de Guayaquil. Elle se présente comme une bande de 80 000 km2. C’est une sorte de piémont qui descend graduellement du pied du massif andin jusqu’à la mer. Cette plaine est affectée de quelques petits reliefs isolés, collines ou coteaux, qui alternent avec les grandes zones alluviales dues à l’élargissement des vallées qui descendent des Andes. Les types de climat, de sol et de végétation permettent de distinguer trois secteurs dans cette région côtière. La partie qui borde les Andes est affectée de pluies très abondantes pendant 6 mois de l’année et plus modérées pendant le reste du temps. Le total pluviométrique dépasse 3 m par an. La température moyenne avoisine 24 °C. Les conditions climatiques sont à peu près les mêmes dans la zone côtière, au nord ; cependant, la température est plus élevée, et les pluies un peu moins abondantes. Le climat est beaucoup plus sec dans le sud de la plaine. Les températures sont élevées et les précipitations annuelles n’atteignent pas 1 m (environ 700 mm à Machala).
Le contraste est aussi brutal à l’est entre les Andes et la plaine amazonienne, dont l’altitude ne dépasse pas 150 m. Petit fragment de la grande dépression amazonienne, la partie équatorienne est drainée par les petites rivières qui descendent des Andes. Avec un climat chaud et humide toute l’année, elle appartient à la zone typiquement équatoriale, recouverte de grandes forêts.
Les hauts bassins bénéficient, par suite de leur altitude, d’un climat plus tempéré. Les différences de température sont considérables entre le jour, chaud, et la nuit, fraîche, quelle que soit la saison. Les précipitations ne dépassent pas 1,50 m par an. Les plus hauts sommets de la Cordillère sont couverts de neiges éternelles.
Il faut rattacher à cet espace continental l’archipel des Galápagos (ou de Colón), situé dans le Pacifique à 1 000 km des côtes. Sa superficie totale approche 8 000 km2, et il est peuplé de 3 000 habitants.
M. R.
L’histoire
La colonie
L’audiencia de Quito est marquée dès ses origines (1563) par l’opposition, encore actuelle, entre la côte et la montagne. La côte, c’est-à-dire la vallée du Guayas, vit de l’agriculture tropicale, et ses plantations, exploitées par une main-d’œuvre servile, produisent du cacao pour l’Europe. En 1781, on y compte 17 000 Noirs, 9 000 Indiens et 5 000 Blancs. La Sierra, dirigée par l’aristocratie politique et foncière de Quito, renferme 400 000 habitants (68 p. 100 d’Indiens et 26 p. 100 de Blancs) et vit repliée sur elle-même. Cet isolement explique la survie de la langue indienne, le quechua.
L’indépendance
Le 10 août 1809, le président-intendant est renversé par une conspiration d’aristocrates vite écrasée par le vice-roi de Nouvelle-Grenade. À partir de 1817, le rêve de Simón Bolívar* de créer une Grande-Colombie, allant de Caracas à Guayaquil et de Panamá à Bogotá, prend forme. En 1821, le congrès de Cúcuta unifie, sous l’autorité de Bogotá, la Nouvelle-Grenade, le Venezuela et Quito, que le lieutenant de Bolívar, le général Sucre, a libéré des forces royalistes. Dès cette époque, le Pérou affirme son droit à la domination sur le futur Équateur. La Grande-Colombie ne survivra point aux guerres avec le Pérou, et, en 1830, suivant l’exemple du Venezuela, Quito fait sécession. L’Équateur est né, sans que ses habitants y soient pour quelque chose. De 1816 à 1845, les maîtres de la vie politique sont des généraux d’origine vénézuélienne, les « janissaires noirs ». L’un d’eux, Juan José Flores (1801-1864), président de la République de 1830 à 1834, puis réélu en 1839, exerce une véritable dictature de 1843 à 1845. Ces militaires se taillent des fiefs dans la Sierra et arbitrent l’opposition entre les planteurs et les commerçants de Guayaquil et les notables de la montagne, riches de leur domination sur les Indiens endettés. Si l’opposition ne conduit pas à la guerre sans merci, c’est que la côte est menacée d’annexion par le Pérou, tandis que la Sierra redoute la Colombie.
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