Cette gloire apparente marque le début du grand échec politique de Bolívar : le congrès qu’il réunit à Panamá pour regrouper tous les États latino-américains, sourdement combattu par les États-Unis et l’Angleterre, est un échec. Au début de 1827, Bolívar réussit à venir à bout d’une révolte fomentée en avril 1826, au Venezuela même, par Páez. En 1828, la Convention nationale d’Ocaña cherche à enlever au Libertador ses pouvoirs extraordinaires. La tentative échoue : Bolívar se fait proclamer dictateur par la majorité des municipes, puis n’échappe à un attentat qu’en sautant par une fenêtre de sa résidence de Bogotá (25 sept. 1828). En 1829, Sucre doit repousser une tentative d’invasion des Péruviens. Enfin le congrès constitutionnel qui se réunit à Bogotá en janvier 1830 accepte la démission de Bolívar, après la sécession du Venezuela, inspirée encore par Páez. Proclamé « ennemi du Venezuela », Bolívar gagne Cartagena, où il apprend l’assassinat de Sucre, et s’apprête à partir pour l’Angleterre. Retardé par des intrigues où l’on essaie de l’introduire, dépourvu de ressources, il finit par accepter l’hospitalité d’un Espagnol de la région de Santa Marta. Par un curieux paradoxe, son hôte, chez lequel il meurt le 17 décembre 1830, est resté fidèle à la couronne d’Espagne. Le dernier vœu du Libertador est que sa mort contribue à apaiser les frictions et à favoriser l’union des Colombiens.
S. L.
➙ Amérique latine.
S. Bolivar, Choix de lettres, discours et proclamations (trad. de l’espagnol, Stock, 1934). / W. Frank, Birth of a World, Bolivar in Term of His Peoples (Boston, 1951 ; trad. fr. Naissance d’un monde, Bolivar et ses peuples, Gallimard, 1954). / S. de Madariaga y Rojo, Bolivar (Mexico, 1951 ; trad. fr., Calmann-Lévy, 1955 ; 2 vol.). / G. Tersen, Simon Bolivar (Club fr. du livre, 1961). / P. Chaunu, l’Amérique et les Amériques (A. Colin, 1964). / A. Mijares, El Libertador (Caracas, 1964). / A. Whitridge, Simon Bolivar, The Great Libertador (New York, 1964 ; trad. fr. Bolivar le libérateur, Nathan, 1966).
Bolivie
En esp. Bolivia, État de l’Amérique du Sud. Capit. La Paz. La Bolivie constitue un État continental, séparé du Pacifique par les territoires du Pérou et du Chili, limitrophe par ailleurs du Brésil, du Paraguay et de l’Argentine. Son territoire s’étend sur 1 500 km du nord au sud et 1 300 km d’est en ouest ; il comprend deux zones naturelles différentes : une partie ouest qui constitue une fraction des Andes centrales, et une partie est, occupant près de 70 p. 100 de l’espace, formée de bas plateaux et de plaines appartenant au bassin amazonien et à la plaine du Chaco. Bien que beaucoup plus vaste, cette région ne regroupe que 13 p. 100 de la population : la Bolivie est avant tout un État andin.
Les milieux naturels et les hommes
La région andine comprend d’abord le haut plateau, situé entre les deux cordillères, qui s’étend de la région du lac Titicaca jusqu’au 22e degré de lat. sud, à une altitude variant entre 3 700 et 4 000 m. Il constitue un bassin fermé à deux saisons : une saison humide qui dure d’octobre à mars et reçoit du nord au sud de 250 à 600 mm de précipitations, et une saison presque totalement sèche. Les températures sont relativement basses par suite de l’altitude, et les gelées fréquentes.
Dans la région du lac Titicaca, la population, nombreuse, pratique une polyculture d’autosubsistance très intensive, sur des terres qu’un système de terrasses permet d’utiliser au maximum. Les cultures de l’orge, de la pomme de terre, des légumes et des fèves s’y trouvent associées à un peu d’élevage, mais celui-ci est beaucoup moins important que dans le reste du haut plateau. En effet, en dehors de cette zone du lac Titicaca, le haut plateau est peu utilisé par les activités agricoles ; les versants pierreux n’y sont pas transformés en terrasses, les cultures y sont sporadiques. C’est une zone d’élevage, du mouton et du lama. Les nombreux lacs entretiennent une activité de pêche non négligeable pour l’alimentation de cette population, essentiellement indienne ou métisse.
Le haut plateau est bordé à l’est par la grande Sierra des Andes centrales, entaillée de vallées profondes, qui constitue le deuxième milieu naturel.
Ces vallées de la Sierra orientale, qui prennent naissance à 3 500 ou 4 000 m d’altitude pour s’achever dans la partie basse à 700 ou 500 m, constituent un milieu intermédiaire entre les hauts plateaux froids et les basses terres tropicales, avec une température moyenne voisine de 18 °C. En revanche, la pluviosité varie entre 450 et 600 mm, conférant à la région un caractère qui reste semi-aride.
Les habitants y pratiquent une agriculture d’autosubsistance diversifiée, comprenant blé, maïs, pommes de terre et aussi de nombreuses cultures fruitières. Principalement concentrée dans le fond des vallées, cette population utilise les versants qu’elle rend exploitables grâce au système des terrasses. Ces vallées constituent les axes de communication entre les hautes terres et là zone tropicale, et, d’une façon plus générale, entre la Bolivie et le reste de l’Amérique du Sud ; aussi englobent-elles les villes les plus importantes du pays.
À cette zone intermédiaire succèdent, au nord et à l’est, les grandes plaines, qui forment le troisième milieu naturel et dont l’altitude varie entre 100 et 700 m. Le climat permet d’y distinguer deux zones : une partie méridionale, qui appartient à la grande plaine du Chaco et dont le climat subtropical, relativement sec, présente des précipitations inférieures à 1 000 mm ; c’est le domaine de la savane, voire de la brousse ; une partie septentrionale, où les pluies sont plus abondantes (entre 1 300 et 1 500 mm par an) et où la savane fait progressivement place à des forêts tropicales, annonçant déjà la forêt amazonienne. Cette zone des plaines boliviennes a été pendant longtemps pratiquement vide d’hommes, et ce n’est guère qu’à la fin du xixe s. et au début du xxe s. que quelques tentatives de mise en valeur l’ont progressivement peuplée. Elle compte aujourd’hui environ 600 000 habitants qui se livrent à l’élevage (en particulier l’élevage bovin dans la savane) ou aux cultures tropicales (canne à sucre, riz, coton, voire caoutchouc). Mais ces activités ne représentent que quelques taches de colonisation au sein, d’une région encore très peu peuplée.
M. R.
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