E. Tannenbaum, The Action française. The Hard Reactionaries in Twentieth Century France (Londres, 1962). / E. Weber, Action française, Royalism and Reaction in Twentieth Century France (Stanford, 1962 ; trad. fr. l’Action française, Stock, 1964). / L. Thomas, l’Action française devant l’Église, de Pie X à Pie XII (Nouv. Éd. latines, 1965). / A. Marty, l’Action française racontée par elle-même (Nouv. Éd. latines, 1968).
activation
Effet produit sur une structure (ovule, molécule, atome) par un agent extérieur et qui se traduit par un accroissement de ses échanges d’énergie à une température donnée.
Sens biologique
Dans le domaine de la reproduction sexuée chez les êtres vivants, le terme désigne l’ensemble des réactions de l’ovule à la pénétration du spermatozoïde. Les modalités n’en sont pas très différentes d’une espèce à l’autre ; cependant, les résultats des études faites surtout chez l’Oursin, matériel commode, ne sont pas transposables sans précaution aux autres espèces animales. Les indications qui suivent ne concerneront donc que les faits les plus généraux. La pénétration du spermatozoïde à travers la membrane cytoplasmique de la cellule reproductrice femelle, qui l’attire, provoque au point d’impact l’apparition d’une luminescence qui se propage à toute la surface ovulaire. Cette luminescence est sans doute due à une modification de l’orientation des macromolécules superficielles, qui a pour conséquence une modification des propriétés de la membrane. À partir du même point s’observe ensuite une vague de contraction intense de la surface cytoplasmique avec soulèvement d’une membrane de fécondation qui se détache du cytoplasme de l’ovule et délimite entre elle et la cellule femelle un espace périvitellin. L’abondante sécrétion par l’ovule d’un liquide fluide, l’appel d’eau provoqué par la pression osmotique, plus forte que celle du milieu ambiant, contribuent au soulèvement de la membrane de fécondation. Les deux globules polaires ont été expulsés. À partir de ce moment, aucun autre spermatozoïde ne peut plus pénétrer dans l’œuf, qui, obéissant à la sollicitation de la pesanteur, tourne et s’oriente.
Enfin et surtout, l’œuf est proprement activé, en ce sens que sa perméabilité et l’intensité de ses échanges avec le milieu qui l’entoure s’accroissent beaucoup et rapidement. Cinq minutes après la pénétration du spermatozoïde, l’œuf d’Oursin rejette quatre fois plus de gaz carbonique qu’à l’état vierge. Trois quarts d’heure après, ses échanges respiratoires sont doubles de ceux de l’œuf vierge.
Les techniques expérimentales mises au point pour l’obtention de développements parthénogénétiques ont permis de mieux comprendre le rôle du spermatozoïde et la signification de l’activation sans que, pour autant, tous les problèmes soient résolus. On peut, en effet, obtenir l’activation à l’aide d’agents chimiques, mécaniques, thermiques qui modifient les propriétés de la région corticale. Mais la suite du développement (en particulier la réalisation d’une double polarité dans l’œuf) exige l’intervention de certains constituants nucléaires (ADN) apportés par le gamète mâle. L’activation de l’œuf fécondé n’est, en fait, que la résultante d’un grand nombre de réactions chimiques, dont certaines, propres aux organismes vivants, mettent en jeu des systèmes enzymatiques plus ou moins complexes. La fonction de ceux-ci est d’abaisser considérablement les énergies d’activation de réactions chimiques qui, en l’absence de catalyseurs, n’ont pas lieu à des vitesses appréciables aux températures compatibles avec la vie. C’est donc au niveau moléculaire qu’il faut, en définitive, envisager l’activation.
Sens chimique
L’énergie qu’il faut fournir à un composé pour détruire une liaison initiale et permettre un réarrangement moléculaire est appelée énergie d’activation. La dégradation de l’urée, par exemple, se fait selon le schéma suivant : CO(NH
22223
) + HO → CO + 2 NH.
Elle exige un apport important d’énergie puisque, in vitro, la réaction ne s’obtient qu’après l’ébullition prolongée du mélange initial.
Dans l’état activé, les liaisons du complexe moléculaire formé sont rendues plus labiles et peuvent être détruites plus facilement. Mais les états activés ne se rencontrent jamais spontanément aux températures physiologiques. C’est alors qu’interviennent les enzymes. Dans l’exemple auquel il est fait allusion plus haut, l’enzyme uréase catalyse la réaction de dégradation de l’urée à 37 °C.
La thermodynamique nous apprend que les réactions chimiques ne sont pas possibles si elles ne se caractérisent pas par une décroissance de l’énergie libre (ΔG négatif). Or, les réactions de biosynthèse qui se déroulent au sein des cellules vivantes sont « endergoniques » ; autrement dit, elles se traduisent par un gain d’énergie libre (ΔG positif). Elles nécessitent donc un couplage avec des réactions de dégradation portant sur des liaisons riches en énergie susceptible d’être libérée. La synthèse de l’acide ribonucléique (ARN), par exemple, se fait à partir de précurseurs qui sont des nucléotides triphosphates (par exemple, le guanosine triphosphate [GTP]). Celui-ci se forme à partir du guanosine monophosphate (GMP), molécule acceptrice, et de groupes phosphates (~ P) riches en énergie, issus de l’adénosine triphosphate (ATP).
Le guanosine triphosphate constitue un exemple de molécule activée susceptible de s’unir spontanément à une autre molécule grâce aux groupes ~ P ; le transfert d’un tel groupe riche en énergie est appelé activation de groupe.
R. M.
➙ Énergie / Enzyme / Fécondation.
J. D. Watson, Molecular Biology of the Gene (New York, 1965). / C. Houillon, Introduction à la biologie, t. IV : Sexualité (Hermann, 1967). / J. Yon, Structure et dynamique conformationnelle des protéines (Hermann, 1969).
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