Après la grande famine du Gujerat (1630-1632), la carence en main-d’œuvre entraîna un déplacement des activités textiles vers le Coromandel, le Bengale et l’Assam. L’essor des plantations de thé se fit d’abord sur l’initiative du gouverneur lord William Henry Cavendish Bentinck (1833-1835) ; en 1840 était fondée l’Assam Tea Company Limited, véritable « greffe économique » faisant entrer l’Assam, par le biais de l’agriculture commerciale, au sein de la Communauté économique indienne, dans le cadre des Indes britanniques. L’intégration économique s’est en grande partie réalisée par le fait de la domination britannique, véritable « rouleau compresseur » par rapport aux particularismes régionaux.
De nos jours, le problème se pose surtout au niveau des communautés tribales montagnardes, hostiles à toute intégration, dans laquelle elles ne voient qu’aliénation. Cette hostilité a conduit le gouvernement de New Delhi à créer, en avril 1970, un nouvel État autonome : le Meghalaya, qui groupe les régions tribales de l’État frontalier de l’Assam.
J. K.
assemblage
Dans la construction en bois, élément composite résultant de la jonction de diverses pièces formant un ensemble (cadre de porte ou de fenêtre, ossature de meuble, ferme de charpente, etc.) afin d’en assurer la liaison et la solidarité.
Charpente traditionnelle
Certains assemblages font appel à des techniques très anciennes transmises par le compagnonnage, exigeant l’exécution, souvent à la main, d’entailles, de coupes, de tenons, de mortaises, qui doivent être réalisés par des ouvriers habiles, formés à l’école du trait de charpente. Les assemblages les plus courants sont les assemblages à tenon et mortaise, droits ou biais, à enfourchement, à embrèvement, à mi-bois ; ils peuvent être simples ou multiples et intéresser des pièces massives ou jumelées (moisées). La coupe à embrèvement a pour but d’empêcher le glissement relatif de pièces obliques l’une par rapport à l’autre. Les assemblages de pièces bout à bout, ou entures, sont aussi exécutés à mi-bois, à queue d’aronde, à tenon et mortaise, à sifflet, à trait de Jupiter, à enfourchement, par moises, etc. Tous ces assemblages font intervenir les résistances propres du bois, notamment à la compression ; comme les entailles réduisent les sections, les assemblages exigent des pièces de fort équarrissage, caractéristiques des charpentes traditionnelles des maisons anciennes, dites « à pans de bois », des constructions rurales ou des églises, des châteaux et des bâtiments historiques.
Menuiserie
Les mêmes conceptions, plus ou moins modifiées, ont été reprises dans la menuiserie et dans l’ébénisterie par les anciens artisans ; elles ont ensuite été adaptées et perfectionnées pour être réabsées au moyen des machines (tenonneuses, mortaiseuses, raineuses, etc.) dans les entreprises industrielles. Ces assemblages combinent aussi coupes, entailles, mortaises de manière à permettre l’emboîtement des pièces et leur maintien. On trouve également des assemblages à rainures et languettes, parfois à fausses languettes, pour les panneaux ou les lames de parquet, ainsi que par tourillons ou par pigeons pour certains cadres et ossatures. Dans certains cas, notamment l’ébénisterie et la tabletterie, interviennent des questions d’aspect et d’esthétique qui font réaliser des assemblages n’apparaissant pas en surface, pour permettre ensuite le placage et la finition (coupes plates, fausses coupes, etc.). De toute façon, la menuiserie ou l’ébénisterie demande moins de résistances mécaniques que la charpente, mais plus de finesse et d’exactitude dans l’exécution.
Assemblages modernes
Dans la charpente moderne, à moyenne ou à grande portée, calculée suivant les règles de la résistance des matériaux, on préfère utiliser d’autres modes d’assemblage, capables de résister aux efforts imposés et permettant de réaliser les nœuds plus ou moins compliqués de la charpente triangulée. Les assemblages cloués, rigides et indéformables, et les assemblages boulonnés sont les plus courants ; parfois, ils sont renforcés par des organes d’assemblage (anneaux, crampons, plaques dentées, connecteurs, etc.) qui, sous de faibles dimensions, en augmentent sensiblement les résistances. Les assemblages à goussets en contre-plaqué ou métalliques (plaques clouées, plaques dentées, etc.) sont également utilisés dans la construction des fermettes industrialisées et des charpentes triangulées. De très nombreux types de connecteurs ou de plaques-goussets dentées ou à aiguilles existent sur le marché, couverts par des brevets. Ces types d’assemblage ont permis de généraliser le calcul statique des fermes et d’industrialiser la fabrication. Le collage, grâce aux colles modernes résistant à l’eau et à l’humidité, est un nouveau mode d’assemblage très utilisé aussi bien en menuiserie qu’en charpente. En menuiserie, il sert soit au renforcement d’assemblages de type traditionnel, soit dans l’aboutage, ou jointage bout à bout des pièces (entures multiples ou joint Scarf réalisés au moyen de machines spéciales). En charpente, il a connu un nouvel essor avec l’apparition de la charpente lamellée collée (composée de planches minces, ou lamelles, jointées et collées à plat, à fils parallèles). Si un collage est bien exécuté, il ne doit céder que par la rupture du bois adjacent et non par celle du joint lui-même.
J. C.
F. Kollmann, Technologie des Holzes und der Holzwerkstoffe (Berlin, 1951-1955 ; 2 vol.). / F. X. Brochard, Bois et charpentes en bois (Eyrolles, 1960). / Y. Gasc et R. Delporte, les Charpentes en bois (Eyrolles, 1961). / C. Riollot, Menuiserie du bâtiment (Dunod, 1967). / F. X. Brochard et J. C. Reggiani, les Procédés d’assemblage dans la charpente en bois (Centre technique du bois, 1968).
assemblage
Réunion de matériaux de nature différente au sein d’une même œuvre artistique à deux ou trois dimensions.
En tant que démarche créatrice, l’assemblage occupe dans l’art contemporain une place de tout premier plan. L’exposition du Museum of Modern Art de New York, en 1961, intitulée The Art of Assemblage, a résumé une bonne partie des plus extrêmes tentatives accomplies au cours d’un demi-siècle en vue de renouveler la conception de l’acte créateur.
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