W. T. Moss, Therapeutic Radiology. Rationale, Technique, Results (Saint Louis, 1959 ; 3e éd., 1969). / M. Tubiana, J. Dutreix et coll., Bases physiques de la radiothérapie et de la radiobiologie (Masson, 1963). / T. J. Deeley et C. A. P. Wood, Modern Trends in Radiotherapy (Londres, 1967). / D. Blanc et coll., Physique de la radiothérapie (P. U. F., 1974).
radium
Élément métallique radioactif, de numéro atomique 88.
Découverte du radium (Ra)
En 1898 — quelques mois après la découverte du polonium —, Pierre et Marie Curie* et Gustave Bémont, en travaillant sur de la pechblende provenant de Joachimsthal (Jáchymov), eurent l’intuition que la radioactivité* des produits étudiés (900 fois plus importante que celle de l’uranium*) ne pouvait s’expliquer que par la présence dans ce minerai d’une substance inconnue très radioactive ; en poursuivant leurs recherches, ils parvinrent à obtenir un décigramme de chlorure d’un nouvel élément qu’ils baptisèrent radium, car il avait été découvert par des mesures de radiations : c’était l’isotope 226 ; ce nom devait bientôt symboliser dans tous les esprits le phénomène de radioactivité. Pour produire un gramme de radium 226, il fut nécessaire de traiter 3 tonnes de pechblende.
Le226Ra est un membre de la famille radioactive de l’uranium ; c’est un émetteur de rayonnement alpha (5,77 MeV) et de quelques gamma (0,18 MeV) liés à la structure fine du spectre alpha. Sa période est T = 1 622 ans. Initialement, Marie Curie, dans ses calculs, avait adopté comme valeur de la période 1 590 ans, et c’est la raison pour laquelle la définition initiale du curie (activité de 1 g de Ra en équilibre avec ses descendants) dut être modifiée (maintenant : activité d’une substance quelconque correspondant à 37 × 109 désintégrations par seconde).
Les minerais uranifères exploités pour l’extraction du radium sont : la pechblende de Joachimsthal, l’autunite du Portugal, la carnotite des États-Unis et la bétafite de Madagascar.
C’est en 1910 que le métal fut préparé pour la première fois par Marie Curie et André Louis Debierne par électrolyse du chlorure avec une cathode de mercure et distillation de celui-ci.
Principales propriétés et isotopes du radium
• Le radium, métal blanc brillant, fond à 700 °C environ ; il se combine à froid à l’oxygène et à l’azote de l’air et décompose l’eau violemment.
C’est un métal alcalino-terreux ; il est bivalent, et les sels de radium ont des propriétés qui rappellent celles des sels de baryum, tout en étant moins solubles que ces derniers ; les sels de radium sont blancs, mais luminescents sous l’effet du rayonnement alpha.
• Cinq isotopes du radium existent dans des familles radioactives : ce sont les isotopes 223, 224, 225, 226 et 228 (tableau no 1). On connaît en plus huit autres isotopes du radium, tous radioactifs, ayant un nombre de masse compris entre 213 et 230 ; tous ont des périodes très courtes : entre une heure et 10–3 s.
Un certain nombre d’éléments de la famille de l’uranium étaient à l’origine appelés radium, ce mot étant suivi d’une lettre allant de A jusqu’à G (tableau no 2).
Ajoutons que le radon 222 (Z = 86), appelé aussi émanation, est le fils du radium 226 ; il existe trois isotopes naturels du radon, tous émetteurs alpha (tableau no 3).
Importance du radium dans la nature et usages
• Le radium se trouve dans tous les minerais d’uranium, le rapport Ra/U étant 3,4 × 10–7. La dispersion de l’uranium dans les roches et minerais a comme conséquence la grande dissémination à l’état de traces des isotopes naturels du radium dans la lithosphère, l’hydrosphère et la biosphère. La teneur du radium dans les roches est de l’ordre de 10–12 g/g ; dans les eaux des océans et des rivières, elle est de l’ordre de 10–13 g/l ; dans les plantes, de 10–14 g/g, et environ dix fois moindre dans les animaux.
• Le radium a été pendant de nombreuses années le seul radioélément (avec son descendant, le radon) utilisé en curiethérapie* et en gammagraphie. L’extraction de l’uranium de ses minerais avait comme but commercial l’obtention du radium. Actuellement, ce dernier est de plus en plus souvent remplacé par des émetteurs gamma artificiels (60Co,137Cs, etc.) et ne constitue plus qu’un sous-produit de la fabrication de l’uranium. Dans les hôpitaux, on utilise, pour le traitement de certaines tumeurs cancéreuses, des petits récipients, ou aiguilles, contenant du radium ; ces récipients sont en platine iridié ou en alliage d’or.
La dose de tolérance de 226Ra est de 4 × 10–8μCi/cm3 d’eau, de 8 × 10–12μCi/cm3 d’air et de 0,1 μCi dans le corps total.
Le radium et son isotope 228 ont été utilisés pour la fabrication de peintures fluorescentes, mais là encore on préfère actuellement d’autres corps radioactifs moins dangereux.
Ajoutons enfin que le radium est très cher du fait de sa rareté ; il existe au maximum quelques kilogrammes de radium dans le monde.
Ph. R.
➙ Curiethérapie / Radioactivité / Uranium.
G. Dupuy, Radium et radioactivité, (P. U. F., coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1941 ; 9e éd., Radioactivité et énergie nucléaire, 1968).
raffinage
Ensemble des procédés utilisés pour transformer le pétrole brut en produits finis : carburants, combustibles, solvants, lubrifiants, bitumes, paraffines, etc.
Les gisements souterrains atteints par forage livrent, en effet, un mélange complexe d’hydrocarbures inutilisable à l’état naturel : trop inflammable pour servir directement de combustible, à cause du danger d’explosion, trop riche en carbone pour l’alimentation d’un moteur à combustion interne, qu’il encrasserait immédiatement, ou trop fluide pour le graissage. On savait depuis le Moyen Âge distiller le pétrole brut dans un alambic et en extraire les différents constituants, dont les plus recherchés furent, jusqu’au xixe s., les huiles médicinales et l’huile de lampe, appelée encore pétrole lampant ou pétrole raffiné. Aujourd’hui, le même terme de raffinage s’applique à une grande industrie de transformation indispensable pour satisfaire les besoins énergétiques du monde moderne.
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