R. M. et A. W. Yerkes, Great Apes : a Study of Anthropoid Life (New York, 1929, nouv. éd., 1971 ; trad. fr. les Grands Singes. L’orang-outang, A. Michel, 1951). / P. Rode et R. Didier, Atlas des Mammifères de France (Boubée, 1946). / F. Bourlière, Vie et mœurs des Mammifères (Payot, 1951), le Monde des Mammifères (Horizons de France, 1954). / P.-P. Grassé, (sous la dir. de). Traité de zoologie, t. XVI-XVII : Mammifères (Masson, 1955-1971 ; 7 vol. parus). / H. Hvass, les Mammifères du monde entier (en danois, Copenhague, 1956 ; trad. fr., Nathan, 1962). / F. Petter, les Mammifères (P. U. F., coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1963). / S. Eimerl et I. De Vare, The Primates (New York, 1965). / A. H. Shultz, The life of Primates (New York, 1969 ; trad. fr. les Primates, Bordas, 1972).
Primatice (Francesco Primaticcio, dit, en fr., le)
Peintre, stucateur et architecte italien (Bologne 1504 - Paris 1570).
Il se forma à Mantoue auprès de Jules Romain*, qui lui fournit un répertoire de formes et lui apprit le secret de surprendre en même temps que l’art de la grande décoration. De 1526 à 1530, il travailla avec son maître au décor du palais du Te, qui constitue le manifeste du maniérisme* mantouan, inspiré de la « terribilità » de Michel-Ange. Par sa destinée, le disciple devait assurer une diffusion européenne à ce nouveau style.
Jules Romain, en effet, recommanda le Primatice à François Ier. L’artiste entra en 1531 au service du roi de France à Fontainebleau* et, entouré d’égards, s’acclimata bien à sa nouvelle patrie. Il travailla d’abord avec son compatriote le Rosso* à la galerie François Ier, qui illustre à la perfection le nouveau style et l’adoption sans réserve du maniérisme ultramontain par la monarchie française. Dans la chambre de la reine, dont le décor lui fut confié, il maria savamment les stucs et la peinture. C’est toujours en collaboration avec le Rosso qu’il décora la chambre du roi et le pavillon de Pomone (v. 1535). Malheureusement, beaucoup de ses travaux ont disparu à la suite des remaniements ultérieurs du château.
Le Primatice prête à la figure humaine une fluidité, une élégance nouvelles, avec des jeux précieux de lignes, sans beaucoup préciser l’expression du visage. Ses allégories témoignent d’un sens de l’agrément qui contraste avec l’art plus violent du Rosso. À la mort de ce dernier, en 1540, le Primatice resta seul comme commissaire général des Bâtiments, et son influence grandit sans cesse. François Ier, qui voulait faire de son palais une nouvelle Rome, l’envoya en mission, en 1540, dans la ville éternelle. Il en rapporta, en plus d’objets d’art précieux, de nombreuses sculptures antiques ainsi que des moulages qui servirent longtemps de références aux artistes français et dont on tira des fontes célèbres pour orner les jardins du roi. Le séjour en son pays d’origine lui permit sans doute une étude approfondie des Loges de Raphaël* et un contact fructueux avec des œuvres essentielles du maniérisme italien et des artistes tels Cellini* et surtout le Parmesan*, dont l’élégance sophistiquée se retrouve dans les nouveaux décors confiés au Primatice à Fontainebleau : l’appartement des bains (1541-1550), la grotte des Pins, la chambre de Mme d’Étampes (1541-1544), la salle de bal (v. 1550-1556) et surtout la galerie d’Ulysse (1541-1570), sans doute son chef-d’œuvre, riche de nombreux panneaux dont on ne saurait trop déplorer la disparition. Une série admirable de dessins en garde le souvenir.
L’artiste conserva sa prééminence sous le règne des successeurs de François Ier, avec une brève éclipse sous Henri II, et déploya une activité inlassable, donnant des projets pour les fêtes, des dessins pour les émaux, des cartons pour les tapisseries, des modèles pour les sculptures. Il fit même œuvre d’architecte à l’aile dite « de la Belle Cheminée » à Fontainebleau et à la chapelle funéraire des Valois à Saint-Denis (auj. détruite). On lui attribue plusieurs tableaux de chevalet, l’Évanouissement d’Hélène (Londres, coll. part.), une Sainte Famille (musée de l’Ermitage, Leningrad) et, le plus fascinant sans doute, Ulysse et Pénélope (Museum of Art, Toledo, Ohio, États-Unis), où se déploie le charme étrange et sensuel de son art, que domine toujours la figure humaine, avec ses subtiles notations de lumières et d’ombres ainsi que la grâce de sa ligne. La mythologie s’y pare d’une poésie de rêve. Peut-être cet exquis chef-d’œuvre est-il contemporain d’un second voyage fait en Italie en 1563.
Le Primatice exerça une action déterminante tant par son influence directe sur ses aides français et italiens qu’à travers les gravures qui diffusèrent largement sa manière. Jean Goujon* doit ainsi beaucoup aux nymphes de stuc dont Primatice a donné le modèle, créant ce type au canon très allongé, à la tête petite et aux attitudes languides qui est devenu la marque même de l’école de Fontainebleau. D’une manière générale, le style décoratif et raffiné du Primatice eut dans l’art français et européen une longue résonance ; le jeune Poussin*, par exemple, étudia attentivement les compositions de cet Italien qui fut abbé commendataire de Saint-Martin-de-Troyes et assuma longtemps le rôle d’un véritable directeur des Beaux-Arts auprès de la monarchie française.
F. S.
L. Dimier, le Primatice (Coulouma, 1929).
primitives (sociétés)
Sociétés qu’on appelait jadis sauvages.
Cette dérivation n’est pas étrangère à l’ambiguïté qui pèse sur le concept de primitivité. Si le sauvage est le non-civilisé et représente l’humanité dans son état natif et brut, le primitif est, au contraire, le premier civilisé et représente la société dans sa première ébauche. Si le sauvage est le miroir où la société cherche sa nature perdue, le primitif est le repère où se mesure l’ampleur du chemin parcouru.
Les critères qui permettent de désigner du nom de primitif un phénomène social sont, semble-t-il, très simples ; on appelle primitives « les sociétés ignorantes de l’écriture et soustraites de ce fait aux méthodes d’investigation du pur historien » (Lévi-Strauss*, Anthropologie structurale). Le terme de primitif sert donc d’abord à opérer, à l’intérieur des sciences sociales, une division, et à la fonder théoriquement. Mais, du même coup, il sert aussi à constituer un nouvel objet de recherches : les sociétés « ignorantes de l’écriture » et donc de l’histoire. L’idée de « société sans histoire » a la même place et la même fonction que l’idée rousseauiste de l’« état de nature ». De la même manière que le philosophe reconstitue un état originaire où la société peut se reconnaître comme société, de même l’ethnologue produit l’idée d’une primitivité sans histoire, où l’histoire se reconnaît et se connaît. L’idée de primitivité alimente le mythe d’un état préhistorique ou a-historique, décrit tour à tour comme heureuse origine ou comme misère originaire. Dès lors le concept de primitivité produit un objet, les sociétés sans histoire, qui, par définition, ne relève plus des sciences sociales. Comme le dit Lévi-Strauss, « les sociétés les plus archaïques sont toutes grimaçantes de discordances où se découvre la marque, impossible à méconnaître, de l’événement » (Anthropologie structurale). Rien ne saurait nous autoriser à conclure que les sociétés primitives n’ont pas d’histoire. Changements et bouleversements ponctuent l’histoire primitive, dont l’évolution ne suit pas le même rythme que celle des sociétés dites « historiques » et surtout ne concerne pas les mêmes domaines. Mais ces sociétés ne sont, en aucun cas, immobiles, même si, dans certains domaines, celui de la technique par exemple, elles n’ont pas connu d’innovation spectaculaire.
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