Il est difficile de prévoir révolution de l’architecture des ordinateurs, qui reste très dépendante des innovations technologiques. On peut toutefois constater un changement progressif dans le schéma de conception des machines. On a d’abord conçu des matériels ; tant bien que mal, on les a ensuite complétés par un logiciel d’exploitation et des langages évolués ; enfin on a réussi à convaincre les utilisateurs que les ensembles ainsi conçus répondaient à leur besoin (moyennant bien surtout un logiciel d’application). Depuis quelques années, on cherche à renverser ce processus : on part de problèmes posés par le logiciel de base, actuellement plus « fragile » que le matériel, pour en déduire la structure du matériel à construire ; ainsi parle-t-on de machines orientées langages, ou orientées système. Mais il faudra bien en arriver au renversement complet qui consiste à partir des besoins réels des utilisateurs pour concevoir des structures effectivement adaptées. En particulier, on peut s’attendre à voir apparaître des architectures nouvelles pour les grands systèmes d’informations qui stockeront des banques de données continuellement mises à jour et éventuellement réparties sur plusieurs machines organisées en réseau, et permettant tout à la fois de répondre en temps réel à toutes sortes de questions concernant des données stockées et de traiter des modèles de prévision et d’aide à la décision tenant compte de l’ensemble des informations rangées dans les banques.
J. Arsac, les Systèmes de conduite des ordinateurs (Dunod, 1968). / F. H. Raymond, les Principes des ordinateurs (P. U. F., 1969). / A. Profit, Structure et technologie des ordinateurs (A. Colin, coll. « U », 1970). / J. P. Meinadier, Structure et fonctionnement des ordinateurs (Larousse, 1972). / J. C. Faure, Emploi des ordinateurs (Dunod, 1974).
ordres
Types d’ordonnance des structures apparentes dans l’architecture occidentale.
Le traitement plastique des supports isolés ainsi que des poutres, droites ou en arc, qui les associent pour assurer une fonction portante sans avoir l’opacité d’un mur a toujours été un souci majeur de l’architecte. Pour obtenir entre hauteurs et largeurs, pleins et vides, reliefs et creux, lumières et ombres un rapport agréable, il faut combiner ces éléments en une ordonnance. L’élégance ou la puissance et, en définitive, la vie d’un édifice peuvent dépendre des proportions et du décor d’une colonne.
Chaque contrée, chaque période a traité le support de façon particulière et, par là, créé un style, une harmonie due au rythme, au groupement des parties dans un ensemble. La colonne peut même disparaître en tant que support, l’essentiel étant d’aboutir à une raison plastique allant de pair avec la logique constructive.
Colonnes végétales et génies protecteurs
L’Égypte a découvert et multiplié les types columnaires, sans, toutefois, en varier les entablements ni établir de rapports fixes entre les éléments. Le lien enserrant le chapiteau de palmes, de lotus ou de papyrus accuse le caractère d’applique du décor sur le poteau primitif et la tête de ce poteau apparaît au-dessus des efflorescences — en bouton ou épanouies en campanes — pour leur enlever toute valeur portante.
Dès 3000 av. J.-C., à Saqqarah, la colonne végétale symbolise le marais du delta par le papyrus, la haute vallée par un curieux modèle cannelé aux palmes retombantes. L’architecte de l’ensemble funéraire du pharaon Djoser, Imhotep, traduit aussi en pierre des formes plus abstraites, simplement enveloppées au sommet sous une tablette-abaque. C’est déjà préfigurer les ordonnances du Moyen Empire (le « protodorique » de Champollion), voire les colonnes créto-mycéniennes, au fût conique inversé sous l’échiné globuleuse du chapiteau, que surmonte sa tablette carrée. Ces types, végétaux ou non, n’ont pas de frontalité ; la figuration féminine aux torsades enroulées, dite « colonne hathorique », présente au contraire — fait à retenir — deux faces dès le Moyen Empire et quatre à l’époque saïte.
En pays syro-hittite, où, à l’encontre de la Mésopotamie, la pierre le permettait, on voit, vers le xe s. av. J.-C. (à Sam’al [auj. Zincirli, Turquie], Tell Halaf, etc.), des animaux fantastiques servir de base à un pilier-statue. Ici, un sens stabilisateur semble s’attacher au rôle magique de la divinité, comme dans les inscriptions contemporaines Yâkîn et Bô’az sur les colonnes de bronze placées devant de Temple de Jérusalem par le fondeur tyrien Hiram Ier.
Six siècles plus tard, en Iran, on utilisera encore des protomés de taureaux dans les palais achéménides, cette fois au sommet des plus sveltes colonnes de l’Antiquité. Ils reposent sur le fût ou sur un chapiteau à palmes par l’intermédiaire d’un élément carré, solution habile au passage entre la frontalité supérieure et le support circulaire. Mieux encore, seule de tout l’Orient dont elle est l’héritière, la Perse tentera de généraliser son système de proportions et, à l’exemple de la Grèce sa rivale, de créer une véritable ordonnance.
À l’image de l’homme
Le monde grec, de son côté et à partir des mêmes sources, a fait de la colonne la « raison » de toute architecture, à l’image d’un humanisme qui rayonne encore par-delà les siècles. D’une théorie déjà parfaite au ve s., il ne nous reste malheureusement qu’un tardif et unique témoignage, dû au Romain Vitruve* ; et même l’archéologie ne saurait en combler les lacunes. La justification vitruvienne des dispositions doriques à partir de la charpenterie, souvent citée, est moins à souligner que la division en genres (le terme d’ordres apparaîtra à la Renaissance). Le dorique est nu et mâle comme l’atlante, l’ionique est paré et gracieux comme la cariatide, le corinthien a la réserve altière d’une adolescente. Le dorique existait de longue date quand les Ioniens du vie s., pour élever un temple à Apollon, lui ont donné ses proportions, réalisant pareillement pour Diane un vêtement ionique, chaussé d’une base. La haute corbeille du chapiteau corinthien, plus tardif, suffit à transfigurer une colonne restée par ailleurs ionique, comme son entablement. À tout considérer, l’ordonnance se limite à deux types : celui où s’impose le rythme puissant des triglyphes et des métopes à l’entablement, et, par contraste, celui qui est allégé, unifié par la continuité de sa frise.
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