Après la mort de Sa‘ūd le Grand, tué accidentellement sous les murs de Ṭā’if en 1814, Méhémet-Ali, le vice-roi d’Égypte, vient à bout des forces saoudites : en 1818, le royaume de Sa‘ūd est complètement écrasé ; un peu plus tard, en 1836-1837, une révolte des tribus suscitée par les Saoudites est noyée dans le sang. Le danger Saoudite écarté, les Turcs se désintéressent de la péninsule. L’Arabie retourne à l’anarchie et à l’isolement, et les tribus à leurs traditions séculaires. Les Anglais, qui ont occupé Aden en 1839, étendent leur zone d’influence le long des côtes vers Mascate, et établissent leur protectorat sur l’imāmat d’Oman (1891). À l’aube du xxe s., un homme tente, une fois de plus, de rendre au peuple arabe son unité : ‘Abd al-‘Azīz ibn Sa‘ūd*.
D. Hogarth, Arabia (Oxford, 1922). / M. F. von Oppenheim, Die Beduinen (Leipzig-Wiesbaden, 1939-1968 ; 4 vol.). / R. H. Sanger, The Arabian Peninsula (Ithaca, 1954). / P. Birot et J. Dresch, la Méditerranée et le Moyen-Orient, t. II (P. U. F., 1956). / J. Benoist-Méchin, Arabie, carrefour des siècles (A. Michel, 1961). / A. Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1796-1939 (Oxford, 1962). / F. Altheim et R. Stiehl, Die Araber in der alten Welt (Berlin, 1964 ; 5 vol.). / W. Dostal, Die Beduinen in Südarabien (Vienne, 1967).
Arabie Saoudite
En ar. al-Mamlaka al-‘Arabiyya al-Sa‘udiyya, principal État de la péninsule arabique ; capit. Riyāḍ.
L’État Saoudite formation et frontières
L’Arabie Saoudite est un État d’origine bédouine, qui exprime la mainmise récente par les tribus nomades, après la chute de l’Empire ottoman, sur les villes saintes de l’Arabie centrale, la suprématie du Nadjd sur le Hedjaz. À la hauteur des 20°-25° de latitude nord, deux régions humaines s’opposent en effet en Arabie.
Le Hedjaz est un pays de bassins effondrés, en contrebas du front montagneux occidental de la péninsule, communiquant facilement avec la côte par des dislocations transverses. C’est le pays des villes oasis de La Mecque* et Médine, lieu d’origine de l’islām, siège en tout temps d’une bourgeoisie urbaine qui a utilisé ses capitaux dans des entreprises commerciales et caravanières et exploité le pèlerinage aux lieux saints, tandis que le travail de la terre dans les oasis était assuré par des classes serviles, composées en partie d’esclaves noirs. Tolérantes en raison de l’afflux de pèlerins de sectes musulmanes très diverses, ces villes sont de mentalité orthodoxe mais non rigoriste. Elles ont été fortement marquées par leur intégration à l’Empire ottoman (renforcée par le chemin de fer du Hedjaz, qui atteint Médine en 1908).
En face du Hedjaz, le Nadjd est un haut pays massif et désertique, où les rares oasis (al-Djawf en bordure nord du Grand Nufūd, Ḥā‘il au sud) sont strictement subordonnées aux nomades. C’est le pays des grandes tribus bédouines. Enrégimentées depuis l’islam par la bourgeoisie des cités du Hedjaz, elles ont toujours été un peu anarchistes et indépendantes.
Surtout, les formes d’expression religieuse sont très différentes. Le Nadjd a toujours constitué un foyer de sectes plus ou moins hétérodoxes, ismaéliens et crypto-chrétiens aux premiers temps de l’islām, khāridjites et qarmaṭes, dont les révoltes menacèrent le califat de Bagdad. À la fin du xviiie s. apparaît la secte wahhābite, qui fut à l’origine de l’État Saoudite, secte rigoriste et extrémiste qui prêche le retour à l’islām primitif, proscrit notamment les excitants et le tabac, et interdit le luxe sous toutes ses formes. La tribu saoudienne, fraction des ‘Anazas chez laquelle le réformateur ‘Abd al-Wahhāb avait cherché refuge en 1745, s’empare de l’oasis de Riyāḍ en 1764 et fonde le premier empire saoudite, soumettant provisoirement la plus grande partie de l’Arabie, et le Hedjaz de 1801 à 1803. Vaincu par les Ottomans, puis les Égyptiens, le pouvoir saoudite se replie sur Riyāḍ (1824-1890), puis doit abandonner cet ultime point d’appui, et le dernier représentant de la dynastie s’enfuit chez l’émir de Koweït, protégé de la Grande-Bretagne.
La renaissance sera l’œuvre de ‘Abd al-‘Azīz ibn Sa‘ūd, qui s’empare de Riyāḍ en 1902 et achèvera, entre cette date et 1929, la reconquête de la plus grande partie de l’Arabie, au détriment des Rachīdites et des chérifs de La Mecque, protégés, puis successeurs des Turcs après la Première Guerre mondiale. Ibn Sa‘ūd s’appuie sur la milice militaire et religieuse des « ikhwān » (« les frères »), bataillons sacrés formés de volontaires qui expriment le renouveau de la force religieuse explosive du wahhābisme. Des accords avec l’Iraq en 1922-1923, qui fixeront les frontières nord du nouvel État, la conquête des villes saintes du Hedjaz en 1925-1926, une guerre victorieuse contre le Yémen, qui donnera au nouveau royaume la possession de la totalité de l’‘Asīr et lui annexera même une fraction appréciable des hautes terres à vignobles et à caféiers (1934), jalonneront les principales étapes d’une expansion qui ne respectera que les États sédentaires des hautes terres du sud et du sud-est, défendus par le no man’s land du Rub‘al-Khālī, et les émirats côtiers du golfe Persique, protégés par la Grande-Bretagne.
L’idéal va alors s’infléchir peu à peu. La fixation des ikhwān, installés dans des centres de colonisation, marque un changement d’orientation vers la vie sédentaire d’un État qui reste profondément marqué par ses origines bédouines, mais est néanmoins passé en une génération du stade de l’émirat nomade à celui de l’État centralisé. Désormais, en Arabie aussi, il faut raisonner en termes économiques et établir le bilan des activités.
Riyāḍ, capitale de l’Arabie Saoudite
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