Vers 1854, Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1805-1861), fils d’Étienne (fondateur et premier directeur de la ménagerie du Jardin des Plantes), fit connaître les remarquables travaux poursuivis par Daubenton à Montbard (v. Buffon). Il souleva en France un grand mouvement en faveur de l’acclimatation des animaux exotiques, poursuivant ainsi l’œuvre accomplie par son père à la ménagerie du Muséum. Il fonda la Société d’acclimatation de France, dont le but était d’introduire des animaux destinés à rendre service à l’agriculture (le Lama, le Yack, certains Vers à soie) ou bien devant être utilisés comme animaux de compagnie ou d’agrément (Oiseaux et Poissons exotiques).
À l’heure actuelle, les progrès de la science et de la technique, l’étude des régimes alimentaires équilibrés, la conservation et l’entretien des animaux en atmosphère conditionnée pendant la mauvaise saison ont permis d’augmenter dans les jardins zoologiques la longévité moyenne des animaux sauvages. En contribuant ainsi à la sauvegarde des espèces en voie de disparition, l’acclimatation a apporté son aide à la protection de la Nature, rôle aussi important que celui qu’elle a joué dans l’économie animale domestique.
➙ Adaptation / Domestication.
accompagnement
Partie instrumentale d’une partition assujettie à une ou plusieurs parties principales, vocales ou instrumentales, dont elle est le soutien rythmique et harmonique.
On peut en trouver trace dans l’ancienne poésie chantée et, moins loin de nous, dans la chanson des troubadours et des trouvères. Généralement, une autre mélodie doublait ou non le chant. Mais, pas plus que dans les musiques traditionnelles, ce n’était un véritable accompagnement. On peut, par contre, considérer comme un essai d’accompagnement le déchant, l’organum et le faux-bourdon du Moyen Âge. Mais, lorsque le contrepoint se développa, la notion d’accompagnement disparut, car les mélodies superposées et indépendantes formaient un ensemble homogène et pouvaient être confiées indifféremment à une voix ou à un instrument. Au xive s., cependant, on la retrouve en germe dans les pièces profanes (ballades, virelais et rondeaux) de Guillaume de Machault, dont les mélodies étaient soutenues par un contrepoint accompagnant. Mais c’est au xvie s. que la nouvelle écriture en accords justifia, puis rendit nécessaire l’accompagnement. On prit l’habitude de chanter l’air en solo en s’accompagnant d’un luth. Ce fut la monodie accompagnée. Au xviie s., on publia en France des airs de cour et en Angleterre des ayres avec un accompagnement en tablature de luth. En même temps apparut en Italie un autre mode de déclamation chantée, le récitatif, conçu directement pour une voix accompagnée. Dès lors, l’accompagnement ne fut plus tributaire de chaque syllabe du texte. Selon les inflexions du chant, il usa de longues notes tenues ou bien s’anima en prenant parfois son rythme propre et ses tournures mélodiques. On l’écrivit alors sur une seule portée où figurait une simple basse, chiffrée ou non, que l’on appela basse continue ou continuo. Celle-ci, jouée par un basson ou un violoncelle, pouvait être « réalisée » par un instrument harmonique. On la confia non seulement au luth, mais au théorbe, à la guitare, à l’orgue, à l’épinette et, plus tard, au clavecin. Par la suite, dans les cantates et les oratorios de J.-S. Bach et dans les opéras de Händel par exemple, on joignit à la basse d’autres parties instrumentales, dites « parties obligées concertantes ». Jusque vers 1750, c’est-à-dire tant que la basse continue fut couramment utilisée, on publia de nombreuses méthodes pour apprendre à réaliser une basse selon des formules convenues. À l’avènement de l’époque classique, les musiciens délaissèrent ce procédé sténographique et écrivirent intégralement toutes les parties instrumentales de leurs œuvres. Il s’ensuivit une période d’émancipation durant laquelle l’accompagnement prit un tour plus personnel. À la fin du xviiie s. et au xixe s., il se transforma en même temps que l’écriture selon des règles très souples, que chaque musicien appliqua selon son tempérament. Au théâtre, il commenta de plus près la situation dramatique ; au concert, il devint le partenaire sensible des solistes, au point de jouer, par exemple dans les lieder de Schubert et surtout de Schumann, un rôle psychologique. Dans le concerto, le dialogue entre le soliste et l’orchestre, qui s’établissait chez Mozart à des moments privilégiés, se fit de plus en plus serré (Schumann, Concerto pour piano et orchestre, 2e mouvement). Dans la seconde moitié du xixe s., l’accompagnement, joué par tout l’orchestre, prit souvent l’importance d’une symphonie dont la puissance était suffisante pour menacer, chez Wagner par exemple, le soliste d’engloutissement. Dans le lied et la mélodie, il fut presque toujours, à part égale, le collaborateur du soliste, soit en imposant un rythme (Duparc, l’Invitation au voyage), soit en suivant de près la ligne vocale (Debussy, Chansons de Bilitis no 2), soit en affirmant une indépendance qui n’était que feinte indifférence (G. Fauré, Clair de lune). Par des moyens divers, souvent opposés, des musiciens comme R. Strauss, Debussy ou Ravel eurent cependant toujours le souci, qu’il s’agisse de mettre en valeur un poème ou de créer une ambiance, de conserver un judicieux équilibre entre l’accompagnement et la partie principale. Dans la musique contemporaine, par contre, toutes les sonorités ont tendance à se fondre dans une harmonie complexe et totale, à la façon d’un motet médiéval.
Au xviiie s., la leçon d’accompagnement permettait d’apprendre à « réaliser » une basse. De nos jours, elle consiste à entraîner un musicien à jouer dans un ensemble ou à accompagner un soliste.
Au xviie s., pour soutenir les chantres qui interprétaient mal le plain-chant à l’église, on écrivait des accompagnements en accords, note contre note, incompatibles avec le style de l’ancienne monodie. Au xixe s., cette habitude s’aggrava. C’est seulement à la fin du siècle, après la restauration du plain-chant par les moines de Solesmes, que se développa un style d’accompagnement plus respectueux de la modalité et de la rythmique anciennes.
A. V.
F. T. Arnold, The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough-Bass (Londres, 1931).
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