C. et W. Stern, Monographien über die seelische Entwicklung des Kindes, t. I die Kindersprache (Leipzig, 1907 ; 3e éd., 1922). / A. Grégoire, l’Apprentissage du langage (Faculté de lettres, Liège, 1937). / R. Jakobson, Kindersprache, Aphasie und allgemeine Lautgesetze (Uppsala, 1941 ; trad. fr. Langage enfantin et aphasie, Éd. de Minuit, 1969). / H. Wallon, De l’acte à la pensée. Essai de psychologie comparée (Flammarion, 1942) ; les Origines de la pensée chez l’enfant (P. U. F., 1945 ; 2 vol.). / J. Piaget, la Formation du symbole chez l’enfant (Delachaux et Niestlé, 1945) / J. Chateau, l’Enfant et ses conquêtes (Vrin, 1960). / P. Malrieu, la Construction de l’imaginaire (Dessart, Bruxelles, 1967). / Tran Thong, Stades et concepts de stade de développement de l’enfant dans la psychologie contemporaine (Vrin, 1967). / J. Paulus, la Fonction symbolique et le langage (Dessart, Bruxelles, 1969). / P. Oleron, Langage et développement mental (Flammarion, 1972). / M. Richelle, l’Acquisition du langage (Dessart, Bruxelles, 1972).
langage formel
Ensemble L (fini ou infini) de phrases de longueurs finies, construites par mise bout à bout (concaténation) d’un ensemble fini V d’éléments formant un vocabulaire qui offre un modèle à la fois des langues naturelles, des langages artificiels de la logique ou des automates et des langages de programmation de calculateurs. Par exemple, si le vocabulaire V contient les signes de ponctuation symbolisés par w1 = , / w2 = . / , appelés séparateurs, et les mots : a1 = le / a2 = les / a3 = il / a4 = ses /, b1 = que / b2 = sur / b3 = en /, c1 = études / c2 = kangourous / c3 = Australie /, d1 = allait / d2 = passionnaient / d3 = poursuivre /, une phrase française peut être représentée par un mot au sens des automates «
La faculté de langage est acquise par un apprentissage naturel qui, à partir d’échantillons de phrases plus ou moins simples perçus dans l’enfance, permet d’élaborer intuitivement une grammaire, c’est-à-dire un ensemble G de règles qui spécifient les procédures de construction des phrases d’un langage L.
Une grammaire doit permettre plus que l’énumération (probablement infinie) des phrases possibles dans un langage L, mais elle doit aussi assigner à chaque phrase p une description structurale « d » spécifiant l’ordre et les interrelations des éléments dont est faite la phrase. Notre processus de perception A (de la langue française) résulte en la connaissance intuitive de la description structurale d de toute phrase perçue p
La théorie des langages formels vise donc à élaborer une méthode M permettant automatiquement d’associer une description d relative à toute grammaire G pour toute phrase p.
Parce qu’une grammaire peut être formalisée comme une fonction G au moyen d’un nombre fini de règles, la détermination précise des types de règles qui peuvent être admises a été le premier objectif de la linguistique mathématique. Ces études ont un impact immédiat en informatique pour guider la définition et la traduction des langages de programmation de haut niveau. En effet, pour le programmeur, un langage est l’ensemble des programmes qui peuvent être écrits à partir d’un code d’instructions et fournir le résultat voulu sur un calculateur. Tous les programmes possibles ne sont pas corrects et ne font donc pas partie du langage. Pour le logicien, un langage d’automate est un sous-ensemble L de l’ensemble V* des séquences finies engendrées par concaténation à partir d’un alphabet V ; une séquence de symboles comme b1a3d1d3b3c3 dans l’exemple précédent est donc un mot pour un automate et représente une proposition de langage naturel, tandis que d3d1b2 ne peut faire partie du langage.
Le langage des automates a pour premier avantage de permettre une grande concision et la concentration du raisonnement sur quelques configurations de mots remarquables. Malheureusement, la théorie des langages formels est, à l’heure actuelle, gravement sous-développée en dehors de la théorie des grammaires, qui n’est qu’une des premières phases de la linguistique.
Les quatre domaines de la sémiotique
Le monde des langues peut être vu comme une hiérarchie descendant des langages naturels jusqu’au monde des objets en passant, pour l’informatique, par l’intermédiaire des langages de haut niveau, des langages d’assemblage, des langages-machine, de la logique* combinatoire, etc. Un langage est destiné à transmettre un signe pour obtenir une action ; le niveau linguistique où cette action est réalisée est tel qu’à un symbole-source il associe une séquence détaillée d’opérations prenant en compte des contraintes d’exécution, et il est donc inférieur au niveau du langage-source. Autrement dit, donner formellement un sens à un langage ne peut être effectué qu’au moyen d’un autre langage déjà connu et qui soit d’une structure plus simple. En termes de psychologie du comportement, un calculateur associe de même une réponse à un stimulus, c’est-à-dire un résultat à un programme, et le niveau de l’exécutant, la machine câblée, est inférieur en complexité au niveau de la procédure codée.
La sémiotique est la théorie des signes et comprend quatre domaines.
• La mnémonique est l’association d’une mémorisation symbolique (sonore, graphique ou visuelle) aux éléments d’un vocabulaire V, par exemple aux suites de caractères entre deux blancs d’un langage-source.
L’analyse lexicale est l’identification des éléments, morphèmes ou mots dont est faite une phrase (selon qu’elle est respectivement entendue ou lue) et phonèmes ou lettres dont est fait un mot. Elle est sujette à des ambiguïtés auditives, comme dans l’alexandrin malheureux Il sortit de la vie comme un vieillard en sort (hareng saur). Elle peut être représentée par un automate fini.
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