H. C. Léa, A History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages (New York, 1888, 3 vol., rééd., 1955 ; trad. fr. Histoire de l’Inquisition au Moyen Âge, Soc. nouv. de libr. et d’éd., 1900-1902, 3 vol.). / E. Vacandard, l’Inquisition (Bloud et Gay, 1907 ; 4e éd., 1914). / J. Guiraud, l’Inquisition médiévale (Grasset, 1928). / C. Roth, The Spanish Inquisition (Londres, 1937). / G. Deromieu, l’Inquisition (P. U. F., 1946). / N. Lopez Martínez, Los judaizantes castellanos y la Inquisición en tiempo de Isabel la Católica (Burgos, 1950). / H. Maisonneuve, Études sur les origines de l’Inquisition (Vrin, 1959). / J. Caro Baroja, Los judíos en la Espana moderne y contemporanea (Madrid, 1961 ; 3 vol.). / H. A. F. Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (Londres, 1965 ; trad. fr. l’Inquisition espagnole, A. Michel, 1966). / G. et J. Testas, l’Inquisition (P. U. F., coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1966 ; 2e éd., 1969).
Insecte
Animal de l’embranchement des Arthropodes, caractérisé par son thorax — nettement séparé de la tête et de l’abdomen — formé de trois articles, portant trois paires de pattes et souvent des ailes.
Les Insectes forment une très importante classe qui compte à elle seule beaucoup plus d’espèces que toutes les autres classes d’animaux réunies.
Origine des Insectes
Il est très difficile de fixer exactement l’âge auquel ils sont apparus sur la Terre, car les premiers Insectes, datant du Silurien, peut-être même du Cambrien, devaient être très petits et ne nous ont pas laissé de fossiles. Les plus anciens Insectes reconnus avec certitude sont des petites formes sans ailes qui se rapprochent des Collemboles actuels. Ils datent du Dévonien moyen, c’est-à-dire d’environ 400 millions d’années. Les choses changent complètement au Carbonifère, qui montre une très riche faune d’Insectes en Amérique du Nord et en Europe. Cette faune compte de très nombreuses formes ailées, très évoluées, apparentées aux espèces actuelles, mais représentant des lignées spéciales, pour la plupart éteintes ; ces formes rappellent les Éphémères, les Libellules, les Perlides et surtout les Blattes. Ces Insectes, qui habitaient les forêts de Fougères et de Prêles, chaudes et humides, disparaissent dès le Permien, à climat plus sec et plus froid. À l’ère mésozoïque, les fossiles d’Insectes deviennent abondants, surtout au Jurassique. Mais il semble que l’apparition des Angiospermes (plantes à fleurs), au Crétacé moyen, a favorisé l’épanouissement des lignées d’Insectes supérieurs (Diptères Brachycères, Hyménoptères, Coléoptères floricoles, Lépidoptères). Enfin, à partir du Tertiaire, toutes les lignées actuelles sont représentées, et on ne trouve que des différences spécifiques entre les fossiles et les Insectes actuellement vivants.
Organisation générale
Morphologie externe
Malgré l’extraordinaire variété qu’ils montrent dans leur taille, leur forme, leurs couleurs, les Insectes présentent, dans leurs caractères extérieurs, des points communs qui permettent de les reconnaître facilement.
Le corps est toujours divisé en trois parties très nettes : la tête, le thorax, l’abdomen. Il est protégé par un squelette externe formé de deux parties, l’hypoderme, partie interne constituée par des cellules vivantes, et la cuticule, couche externe sécrétée par les cellules hypodermiques. La cuticule se divise en trois couches ; la plus profonde est l’endocuticule, couche pigmentaire ; en dessus se trouve d’abord l’exocuticule, puis une mince épicuticule, imperméable, dont l’épaisseur ne dépasse généralement pas un micron. L’endocuticule est responsable de l’extensibilité du tégument, combinant solidité avec flexibilité. L’exocuticule apporte la rigidité dans les parties les plus dures, et l’épicuticule assure l’imperméabilité de la surface du corps.
Le constituant le plus connu de la cuticule est un polysaccharide azoté, voisin de la cellulose, la chitine, abondante surtout dans l’endocuticule. L’épaisseur de la cuticule est très variable. La rigidité de ce squelette externe rendrait tout mouvement impossible s’il était uniformément réparti sur toute la surface du corps ; aussi celle-ci est-elle divisée en parties à cuticule épaisse, les sclérites, séparées par des aires flexibles, les membranes, qui permettent tous les mouvements du corps et des appendices. La cuticule est formée par des couches alternées de chitine et d’une protéine (arthropodine) ; elle s’étend non seulement sur tout le corps, mais sur les invaginations ectodermiques, comme l’intestin antérieur et postérieur. Outre ce squelette externe, si caractéristique, les Insectes présentent un squelette interne très important puisqu’il assure l’insertion des muscles.
• La tête. C’est une capsule faite de plusieurs plaques, ou sclérites, fusionnées. On y distingue : en avant, le front, le clypeus et le labre ; en dessus, le vertex et l’occiput ; sur les côtés, les joues. Le labre constitue la lèvre supérieure de la bouche ; sa face interne est couverte d’organes gustatifs qui forment l’épipharynx.
La tête peut être dirigée en avant (prognathe) ou perpendiculairement à l’axe du corps, la bouche en bas (hypognathe) ; elle porte les yeux et différents appendices.
• Les yeux. Il existe chez les Insectes deux sortes d’yeux, les yeux simples, ou ocelles, et les yeux composés. Les ocelles sont de petits groupes de cellules sensibles à la lumière, placées sous un épaississement de la cuticule, en forme de lentille. Il en existe deux catégories : les ocelles proprement dits et les stemmates ; ces derniers se voient chez les larves et sont placés sur les côtés de la tête. Les ocelles existent chez les Insectes adultes, surtout dans les ordres inférieurs. Généralement au nombre de trois, ils sont placés sur le front. L’œil composé est un organe remarquable, caractéristique des Crustacés et des Insectes. Il est formé d’éléments, ou ommatidies, en nombre extrêmement variable, allant de quelques unités à plus de 20 000 dans l’œil des Libellules, l’un des plus parfaits. Chaque ommatidie comprend une cornée transparente, suivie, du côté interne, d’un corps réfringent, le cône cristallin, qui est prolongé par une tige, le rhabdome ; celui-ci est entouré par les cellules sensorielles qui forment la rétinule.
• Les appendices. La tête porte deux sortes d’appendices, les antennes et les pièces buccales.
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