S’il est inutile, comme on l’a vu, de fixer une origine de hauteur, il est, par contre, indispensable de fixer les fréquences des sons qui correspondent à l’écriture musicale. On fait tout d’abord la convention suivante : on numérote les octaves successives, le changement de numéro s’effectuant à partir de la note ut. Par convention encore, le la du milieu du piano est dans l’octave portant le numéro 3 et s’écrit la3. La fréquence de cette note a été fixée à 435 cycles par seconde par un arrêté ministériel de 1859. C’est qu’en effet la fréquence du la3 a subi au cours du temps des fluctuations : au xviiie s., le diapason était nettement plus bas, comme en témoignent bon nombre d’orgues de cette époque. Or, plus le diapason est élevé, plus les cordes des instruments sont tendues et mieux elles sonnent, de sorte que les orchestres à cordes avaient une tendance naturelle à hausser le la pour se faire valoir, sans souci des chanteurs qu’ils devaient parfois accompagner et dont l’étendue vocale ne pouvait varier aussi aisément. En fait, même à l’heure actuelle, le la sur lequel les orchestres s’accordent a une fréquence de l’ordre de 440 cycles par seconde, donc un peu supérieur au la « ministériel ». Le tableau ci-dessous donne l’étendue des sons audibles ainsi que celle d’instruments courants.
P. M.
➙ Accord / Audition / Son.
Haute-Volta
État d’Afrique occidentale.
Le milieu
La république de Haute-Volta est le plus petit des États intérieurs de l’Afrique de l’Ouest francophone (480 km du nord au sud, 820 km d’ouest en est). Comprise pratiquement entre 10° et 15° de lat. N., elle appartient entièrement à la zone soudano-sahélienne tant par le climat que par la végétation et le modelé du relief qui y est associé.
Morphologiquement, c’est un vaste plateau cristallin d’une altitude moyenne d’environ 300 m, ourlé au nord-ouest, au sud-ouest et au sud-est de dépôts sédimentaires, incliné du nord vers le sud par une série de gradins et drainé par les trois Voltas (Volta Noire, Volta Blanche et Volta Rouge). La partie centrale, une énorme masse granitique (l’anticlinal de Léo) englobant des formations plissées birrimiennes, présente, contrastant avec des surfaces monotones, des formes de relief variées : larges vallées, dômes granitiques, collines birrimiennes cuirassées ou non, glacis cuirassés ; les sédiments de couverture marginaux (grès primaires ou tertiaires) donnent des fragments de plateaux cuirassés dominant le massif ancien.
Le climat est typiquement soudanien, avec alternance d’une saison sèche (d’autant plus longue qu’on va vers le nord) et d’une saison des pluies ; la végétation naturelle (forêt claire sèche) a été dégradée en savane arborée et passe par endroits à la steppe à épineux (l’extrême Nord appartient à la zone sahélienne). Les forêts-galeries sont infestées par la mouche tsé-tsé.
J. S.-C.
L’histoire
L’histoire ancienne de la Haute-Volta est celle de son peuplement. Les Mossis et leurs « cousins » Gourmantchés, venus du Dagomba, au sud, peut-être au xiie s., paraissent avoir été les premiers envahisseurs de l’Est-Volta. Un royaume gourmantché (Gourma) et quatre royaumes mossis se créèrent autour des Volta supérieures : Tenkodogo, le royaume père, Zendoma, Natenga (Ouagadougou), Yatenga. Entre le xiiie s. et le xvie s., le Natenga et le Yatenga l’emportèrent, mais, tandis que le premier fut un royaume stable et pacifique jusqu’au xixe s., le second, au contact de ses puissants voisins du Nord (Mali, Songhaï, Ségou), fut un royaume belliqueux. Dès 1337, les cavaliers du Yatenga atteignirent Tombouctou et, à la fin du xve s., ils inquiétèrent vivement le souverain songhaï. Plus tard, au xviiie s., le naba, installé à Ouahigouya, dut lutter contre ses anciens alliés bambaras, qui l’avaient aidé à prendre le pouvoir au Yatenga, vers 1754. Quant au Gourma, à l’est, il s’organisa lentement et fut aussi un royaume à vocation guerrière. Ces États, différents par leur histoire, offrent une très forte parenté de croyances (culte des morts) et d’institutions. Le roi (mogho-naba), descendant des héros fondateurs, était élu par un collège de quatre dignitaires (nesomba) et vivait entouré d’une suite de gardes, pages (songhoné), officiers serviles ou libres et nobles privilégiés des lignages royaux (nakomsé). Ses ressources provenaient des tribus des villages, des cadeaux des marchands et du travail sur son domaine propre. Sa force reposait sur la fidélité de ses serviteurs captifs, titulaires de commandements locaux et membres de l’armée.
Dans l’Ouest-Volta, la mise en place des peuples fut plus tardive : des Mandés (Bobo-Dioulas et Dioula-Ouattaras, Samos, Markas venus de Djenné par vagues jusqu’au xixe s.) s’infiltrèrent parmi les Bobos, Bwas et Sénoufos tandis que des Gans (au xvie s. ?), des Tourkas (au xviiie s.), des Lobis et des Birifors (xviiie et xixe s.) arrivaient du Ghāna actuel. La seule tentative d’unification étatique notable fut celle des Ouattaras du Gwiriko, dont l’origine fut l’entreprise, vers 1715, de Famara Ouattara, frère du roi de Kong. Il fit de Bobo-Dioulasso sa capitale et créa une dynastie qui rompit avec le royaume de Kong (Côte-d’Ivoire). L’apogée se situe à la fin du xviiie s. Après 1850, les Ouattaras ne purent empêcher l’émancipation de leurs tributaires, surtout celle des Markas derrière leur marabout Ladyi Mamoudou.
Cette initiative marka faisait suite au grand réveil islamique du xviiie s. en Afrique occidentale. Déjà, au nord, d’autres immigrants, les Peuls musulmans, avaient lancé la guerre sainte contre les païens, qu’ils avaient vaincus entre 1810 et 1817. Leur nouvel État, le Liptako, profita de la situation de carrefour de Dori, mais ne put réduire l’insubordination des premiers occupants mossis et gourmantchés, ni empêcher les raids touaregs.
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