Mais, à partir de 1187, la politique pontificale, qui entend s’assurer la collaboration de l’empereur en vue de la croisade, change de sens : le pape Clément III reconnaît à Henri le titre d’empereur élu des Romains. À l’assemblée de Mayence (printemps 1188), où l’archevêque de Cologne se réconcilie avec l’empereur, Frédéric prend officiellement la croix. De mars 1188 à avril 1189, l’empereur se consacre à la préparation de la croisade, qui s’ébranle de Ratisbonne en mai 1189. Le 10 juin 1190, l’empereur se noie dans un torrent en Cilicie. La légende se répand en Allemagne que l’empereur n’est pas mort, mais que, endormi dans une caverne, il se réveillerait un jour pour un règne perpétuel sur une Allemagne unifiée.
En se détournant de la lutte contre les Slaves du Nord-Est, laissée aux bons soins d’Henri le Lion et de ses successeurs, pour poursuivre la chimère d’un empire universel, Frédéric Barberousse a enlisé la politique impériale en Italie. En concevant d’autre part un empire inspiré de l’idéal carolingien, fondé sur les relations du souverain et de ses sujets d’après le système féodo-vassalique, Frédéric Barberousse a préparé en Allemagne le fédéralisme.
P. R.
➙ Alexandre III / Hohenstaufen / Saint Empire romain germanique.
H. Simonsfeld, Jahrbücher des deutschen Reiches unter Friedrich I (Leipzig, 1908). / B. Gebhardt, Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte (Berlin, 1930). / M. Pacaut, Frédéric Barberousse (Fayard, 1967). / Probleme des 12. Jahrhunderts (Constance et Stuttgart, 1968). / P. Munz, Frederick Barbarossa (Londres, 1969).
Frédéric II de Hohenstaufen
(Iesi, marche d’Ancône, 1194 - château de Fiorentino, près de Foggia, 1250), roi de Sicile de 1197 à 1250, empereur germanique de 1220 à 1250, fils de l’empereur Henri VI et de Constance, reine de Sicile.
Le règne
Proclamé roi de Sicile à l’âge de trois ans, après la mort prématurée d’Henri VI, Frédéric fut élevé à la cour de Palerme sous la tutelle du pape Innocent III. En 1212, l’empereur Otton IV cherchant à conquérir la Sicile, le pape, pour lui faire échec, suscita la candidature de son pupille au trône d’Allemagne. Frédéric franchit les Alpes, et, grâce à l’appui de l’Église, des princes fidèles aux Hohenstaufen et de Philippe Auguste, qu’il rencontra à Vaucouleurs, il fut couronné roi des Romains et sacré à Mayence.
Deux ans plus tard, après la défaite d’Otton IV à Bouvines, Frédéric était maître de l’Allemagne entière. D’abord fils respectueux de l’Église, il prit la croix et favorisa les évêques au détriment des villes. Mais contrairement à sa promesse de ne pas unir sous le même sceptre l’Allemagne et la Sicile, il fit proclamer roi des Romains en 1220 son fils Henri (VII) [né en 1211], déjà roi de Sicile depuis 1212. Néanmoins, le pape Honorius III le couronna empereur, dans l’espoir de hâter la croisade. Frédéric ajourna trois fois son départ, voulant au préalable rétablir son autorité dans son royaume sicilien, puis en Italie du Nord, où il échoua : Milan reconstitua contre lui la Ligue lombarde avec douze autres villes (1226).
Dès son avènement, le pape Grégoire IX, exaspéré des atermoiements de Frédéric, l’excommunia (1227). Pourtant, l’année suivante, celui-ci s’embarqua pour la Terre sainte. Mais au lieu de la conquérir de haute lutte, il négocia avec le sultan ayyūbide al-Malik al-Kāmil et en obtint la cession de Jérusalem. Nazareth et Bethléem, ainsi que de deux couloirs reliant ces villes à la côte. Accueilli à Jérusalem par le sultan, il se couronna lui-même roi de Jérusalem.
Indigné par cette politique, le pape fit jeter l’interdit partout où passait l’empereur. En même temps, les alliés du pape envahissaient l’Italie du Sud. Aussi, moins d’un an après son départ, Frédéric revint-il en Italie. Il préféra s’accorder avec Grégoire IX par la paix de San Germano (1230) et fut relevé de l’excommunication. Il put alors rétablir son pouvoir en Sicile, ébranlé par une révolte, mais ne réussit pas à obtenir la soumission des villes lombardes. En Allemagne, Henri (VII), ayant favorisé l’émancipation des villes, suscita l’animosité des princes, et Frédéric désavoua son fils. Celui-ci passa à la révolte ouverte et s’allia même avec la Ligue lombarde. Mais l’empereur n’eut qu’à paraître en Allemagne pour couper court à toute velléité de résistance, et la brillante diète de Mayence (1235) marqua l’apogée de son règne. Henri fut destitué et emmené captif en Sicile, où il se tua (1242).
Frédéric déclara la guerre à la Ligue lombarde et remporta à Cortenuova (1237) une éclatante victoire, mais qui fut sans lendemain. Grégoire IX, à présent persuadé de sa volonté d’hégémonie en Italie, l’excommunia pour la seconde fois (1239). De plus, le pape convoqua un concile pour le mettre en jugement. Mais un grand nombre de cardinaux se rendant à Rome par mer furent capturés par la flotte pisane et livrés à l’empereur : le concile ne put se réunir. La mort de Grégoire IX (1241) et l’avènement d’Innocent IV (1243) ne firent qu’exaspérer la lutte, par les armes et par la propagande.
Le pape s’enfuit à Lyon, où il se savait protégé par Saint Louis. Il y convoqua un concile général, auquel assistèrent presque uniquement des cardinaux français et espagnols, et fit proclamer la déposition de Frédéric II (1245). Celui-ci fut empêché de marcher sur Lyon par la révolte de Parme, dont les habitants, par une sortie subite, infligèrent un véritable désastre à l’armée impériale (1248), ce qui provoqua de nombreuses défections. En Allemagne, le roi Conrad (IV), second fils de Frédéric, voyait se former et se renforcer une opposition de prélats et de princes, qui élit comme antiroi d’abord le landgrave Henri Raspe, puis le comte Guillaume de Hollande. Lorsque Frédéric II fut emporté par la dysenterie, le 13 décembre 1250, son autorité sur l’Allemagne et sur l’Italie du Nord était profondément ébranlée.
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