fonction réelle d’une ou plusieurs variables réelles(suite)
mathématicien français (Ambert 1652 - Paris 1719). Il fut un algébriste très opposé aux nouveaux calculs de G. W. Leibniz, que défendait avec brio son collègue de l’Académie des sciences, Guillaume de L’Hospital (1661-1704). Sa méthode des cascades, utilisée pour la séparation des racines des équations algébriques, n’a qu’un rapport assez lointain avec le théorème qui porte aujourd’hui son nom : Si une fonction est définie et continue sur un segment, si ses valeurs aux bornes sont égales, et si elle est dérivable à l’intérieur du segment, sa dérivée s’annule au moins une fois à l’intérieur du segment. (Acad. des sc., 1685.)
J. I.
fonctionnalisme [en anthropologie sociale]
École ethnologique d’origine britannique (principalement représentée par A. R. Radcliffe-Brown et B. Malinowski) qui met l’accent sur la notion de dynamisme de la culture (civilisation), et sur l’interdépendance des parties qui la constituent.
Pour le fonctionnalisme, la culture n’est pas un simple assemblage des traits mélangés, mais un ensemble d’éléments complexes qui constituent des mécanismes interdépendants les uns des autres. Par exemple, le « complexe agriculture », qui s’exprime par les outils et les techniques des semailles, des labours, des récoltes, peut modifier les habitudes alimentaires, le système de l’exploitation agricole et le système de transmission héréditaire, la pratique du commerce et les concepts de richesse ; inversement, il peut être modifié par ces habitudes, ces systèmes, ces pratiques, etc. De même, la position sociale, c’est-à-dire les rapports entre les classes, peut entretenir des rapports de cause à effet dans les deux sens avec le type d’activité agricole et son type de production. Les institutions sociales sont aussi en connexion avec le reste, par exemple le mariage : les biens fonciers peuvent être transmis comme dot, comme prix de l’épouse, ou bien la valeur nuptiale d’une femme peut être estimée en fonction de son activité réelle dans les champs. Ainsi, tout pattern de culture se reflète dans un autre pattern ; deux cultures qui intègrent différemment des traits analogues sont, en réalité, complètement différentes. L’école fonctionnaliste a ouvert une voie aux nouvelles perspectives ethnologiques, notamment structuralistes.
D. C.
➙ Anthropologie / Culture / Malinowski (B.) / Radcliffe Brown (A. R.).
fonctionnalisme [en sociologie]
Hypothèse ou théorie empruntée à l’anthropologie par la sociologie et dont la vocation est d’expliquer les divers éléments de la réalité sociale par le rôle et la fonction qu’ils jouent dans une société conçue comme un système cohérent.
Le fonctionnalisme en sociologie a pris naissance aux États-Unis. Il emprunte, du reste, une part de son vocabulaire au culturalisme : il s’agit des notions de normes, de modèles, d’institutions et de statuts par exemple. Cependant, l’organisation des divers éléments s’opère selon une rationalité différente, parce que l’interrogation du fonctionnalisme est différente. Le culturalisme essaie, en effet, de rendre compte des différences de conduite entre des individus qui, appartenant à des cultures différentes, se réfèrent dans leurs comportements à des systèmes de normes différents. Dans le fonctionnalisme, l’accent est mis sur la grande diversité de conduites des individus qui appartiennent à la même culture, ce qui renvoie à la diversité des statuts sociaux observables au sein d’une même société. La socialisation n’est plus l’intériorisation des modèles, mais devient un mécanisme de sélection des individus en vue de pourvoir différentiellement aux positions que définissent la structure sociale et en particulier la structure professionnelle. Les motivations, qui ne sont plus alors fondées sur l’intériorisation des valeurs de la culture concernée, reposent, pour les fonctionnalistes, sur une théorie de l’anticipation : les individus sont guidés dans leur conduite par un réseau d’anticipations réciproques qui interdit des écarts trop grands, risquant de remettre en cause le système social.
L’analyse fonctionnelle ou fonctionnaliste consiste ainsi à expliquer les conduites particulières des membres d’une même société comme le résultat d’un équilibre entre les divers systèmes normatifs.
La démarche fonctionnaliste opère à deux niveaux. Le sociologue construit d’abord des sous-systèmes à partir de la convergence d’une multiplicité de rôles qui constituent un ensemble de positions sociales harmonisées les unes par rapport aux autres. Il situe ensuite chacun de ces sous-systèmes dans cet ensemble que constitue la société globale. T. Parsons écrit dans Social System : « Le sous-système est défini comme complexe d’intégration de rôles institutionnalisés qui présente une signification structurale stratégique pour le système social en question. » Chaque rôle se compose avec d’autres rôles pour constituer un sous-système (ou une institution). Chaque institution compense « fonctionnellement » les insuffisances des autres sous-systèmes, et par là se réalise l’équilibre de l’ensemble. L’idée d’un système composé d’éléments interdépendants qui sont eux-mêmes des systèmes et où le système total s’équilibre lui-même de façon dynamique constitue l’essentiel d’une réflexion fonctionnaliste qui renvoie à des présupposés organiques.
Le fonctionnalisme apparaît donc comme une théorie statique de la vie en société. Aussi certains de ses tenants ont-ils tenté de « dynamiser » leur approche de la réalité sociale pour rendre compte des changements qui l’affectent. Les transformations historiques sont alors conçues comme les transformations d’un sous-système, qui, de proche en proche, se transmettraient à d’autres sous-systèmes. Chaque transformation au sein d’un sous-système entraîne une modification de sa fonction qui doit alors être remplie ailleurs. Le mouvement est donc bien introduit au sein du système, mais, au total, l’équilibre de la société globale est maintenu tel quel.
J.-M. G.
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