Dans le cas des bourgeons, où il correspond à la reprise d’un développement, le moment de l’éclosion dépend de facteurs externes favorables (température, durée de l’ensoleillement entre autres) et de facteurs internes (levée de dormance). C’est aussi essentiellement le retour à des conditions favorables qui est à l’origine de l’éclosion des œufs de durée (Daphnie). Toutefois, il convient de souligner que les inconnues sont encore nombreuses dans ce domaine.
J. P.
L. Bertin, la Vie des animaux, t. II (Larousse, 1949). / P.-P. Grassé (sous la dir. de), la Vie des animaux, t. III (Larousse, 1969). / Précis de biologie végétale (Masson, 1969 ; 3 vol.).
écluse
Ouvrage construit sur les voies d’eau pour permettre au matériel flottant le franchissement d’une dénivellation.
Rares sont les voies d’eau naturelles qui peuvent être utilisées par la batellerie sans une régularisation de leur cours, notamment au moyen de barrages, dont certains peuvent être hydro-électriques. Il se forme ainsi entre les plans d’eau amont et aval une dénivellation qu’il s’agit de faire franchir aux bateaux. La canalisation des rivières ou la création de canaux posent un même problème dès qu’il faut traverser des terrains accidentés provoquant de trop rapides courants. La première solution valable est donnée par l’écluse à sas, inventée au xvie s. par des ingénieurs hollandais et perfectionnée par Léonard de Vinci.
Caractéristiques
L’écluse à sas a la forme d’un parallélépipède rectangle dont les parois latérales sont appelées bajoyers et le fond radier. Les bajoyers doivent résister aux poussées du sol et aux poussées d’eau, qui varient rapidement au cours du remplissage et de la vidange. Le radier est en forme de voûte pour s’opposer aux efforts transmis par les bajoyers et aux sous-pressions. L’écluse communique avec l’amont et l’aval par des portes à deux vantaux, autrefois en bois, maintenant métalliques, s’appuyant l’un sur l’autre. C’est le procédé classique des portes « busquées », maintenues par la pression d’amont, souvent remplacées par des portes levantes ou coulissantes.
Le principe de l’éclusage consiste, s’il s’agit de la remontée du cours d’eau, à faire entrer le bateau dans le sas quand le niveau de celui-ci est le même qu’à l’aval. La porte aval étant fermée, le niveau s’élève par l’entrée de l’eau d’amont, qui passe par des orifices pratiqués dans les portes (les ventelles) ou par des aqueducs qui aboutissent au sas soit par les bajoyers, soit sous le radier. Lorsque le niveau du sas est égalisé avec celui du plan d’eau d’amont, les portes sont ouvertes et le convoi ou le bateau poursuit sa route sur le bief supérieur. Les opérations inverses sont réalisées s’il s’agit de l’autre sens.
En France, les dimensions des écluses restent longtemps limitées par le plan Freycinet (1879) ; elles correspondent à la péniche dite flamande de 38,50 m de long. Maintenant encore, c’est seulement sur quelques axes d’intérêt majeur que sont construits des ouvrages répondant aux caractéristiques de la batellerie moderne. Sur les voies nouvelles, la tendance est d’ailleurs d’allonger les biefs en réduisant le nombre des écluses, qui peuvent, désormais, permettre le franchissement par d’importants convois et en une seule fois de chutes de hauteur accrue. On admet comme normal le passage en une même éclusée de deux barges de 76,50 m de long et de leur pousseur, la longueur totale étant de l’ordre de 175 m pour un port en lourd global utile de 3 000 à 4 000 t. La réalisation la plus marquante en France est celle de Saint-Pierre, sur le Rhône (Donzère-Mondragon), dont la hauteur de chute est de 26 m et le plan d’eau de 195 × 12 m ; mais c’est en U. R. S. S. que paraît atteint le record mondial de hauteur de chute avec 42 m (écluse d’Oust-Kamenogorsk, sur l’Irtych). De telles réalisations restent cependant encore exceptionnelles, parce qu’elles exigent des sols très résistants, entraînent des investissements élevés et posent d’ardus problèmes d’hydraulique. À défaut d’écluse unique, on se trouve donc souvent contraint d’adopter le système de l’échelle d’écluses (la porte aval de la première servant de porte amont à la seconde, etc.) ou même, pour activer les opérations, en les rendant simultanément possibles dans les deux sens, celui des deux échelles parallèles servant chacune dans un sens. Ainsi est conçue la double échelle de Volgograd, qui franchit sur la Volga une chute totale de 25 m par une échelle de deux sas dans les deux sens, chacun d’eux ayant 300 m de long.
Écluse maritime
L’écluse maritime simple, c’est-à-dire sans sas, est destinée, dans les ports à marée, à maintenir à flot les bassins ; les portes ne peuvent donc être ouvertes qu’aux heures où les niveaux sont sensiblement les mêmes des deux côtés. Les périodes d’accès des navires sont ainsi très limitées, et, en général, on ne trouve ce type d’ouvrage que dans les ports secondaires. Dans les ports à marée de quelque importance, on construit des écluses à sas, qui permettent l’accès pendant une bien plus grande amplitude de temps. Ces écluses, comme celles des canaux maritimes (Panamá), présentent des dimensions très supérieures à celles des voies fluviales, puisqu’elles reçoivent des navires de mer. La nouvelle écluse du Havre (1971) a 400 m de long sur 67 m de large et peut recevoir des unités de 250 000 t de port en lourd. Elle met en communication les bassins de marée avec l’ensemble des nouveaux bassins à flot qui desservent la zone industrielle.
Autres ouvrages de franchissement d’une dénivellation
Les diverses formules d’écluses sont rendues coûteuses par les investissements qu’elles impliquent et par une grande consommation d’eau, qui se révèle gênante dans certains sites. D’où la recherche du même résultat par des moyens mécaniques.
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