Cette famille de 8 genres et d’une centaine d’espèces environ vit surtout dans les régions tropicales. Les fleurs sont du type 5, gamosépales et gamopétales, avec 10 étamines ; l’ovaire est à 3 ou 5 loges, le fruit étant le plus souvent une drupe.
Le genre Styrax, dont une espèce vit en France, sur la côte méditerranéenne, possède plusieurs espèces (S. benzoin, S. tonkinensis d’Indomalaisie) qui fournissent le benjoin. Ce baume, connu dès le xive s., est récolté sur ces arbres à partir d’incisions artificielles qui produiraient un tissu sécréteur d’origine cicatricielle, car ces plantes n’ont pas d’appareils sécréteurs dans les branches non lésées.
J.-M. T. et F. T.
ébullition et évaporation
L’évaporation est la vaporisation superficielle d’un liquide au contact d’une atmosphère gazeuse, air par exemple, de volume pratiquement illimité, ou constamment renouvelée (cas des séchoirs).
La vitesse d’évaporation dépend de nombreux facteurs : nature du liquide, vitesse de renouvellement du gaz, température, pression... Suivant une loi due à Dalton, cette vitesse v est proportionnelle à la différence entre la pression pm de vapeur saturante du liquide à la température de celui-ci et la pression partielle f de la vapeur du liquide dans le gaz en contact avec lui ; elle est aussi inversement proportionnelle à la pression p de l’atmosphère gazeuse : A est un coefficient qui dépend de la vitesse de renouvellement du gaz et augmente avec elle.
L’ébullition est la vaporisation interne et tumultueuse d’un liquide, phénomène familier qui se produit quand on élève suffisamment, sous pression donnée, la température du liquide ; des bulles de vapeur se forment et grossissent au sein même du liquide et viennent crever à la surface, agitant le liquide de violents soubresauts ; c’est un phénomène dynamique, la vapeur s’échappant constamment vers l’extérieur du récipient.
L’ébullition d’un corps pur obéit à deux lois fondamentales. 1. Soumis à une pression déterminée, un corps pur bout à une température fixe, qui ne dépend que de la nature du corps pur et de la pression supportée par le liquide ; c’est le « point » d’ébullition du liquide sous cette pression. 2. La température d’ébullition d’un corps pur est la température pour laquelle la pression de vapeur saturante du liquide est égale à la pression supportée par le liquide ; ainsi, l’eau bout à 100 °C sous la pression atmosphérique normale de 760 mm Hg, température pour laquelle la pression de vapeur saturante de l’eau est de 760 mm Hg.
Les conséquences de cette dernière loi sont nombreuses et importantes. a) La température d’ébullition d’un liquide augmente avec la pression qu’il supporte ; ainsi, au voisinage de 100 °C, la température d’ébullition de l’eau croît de 1 °C quand la pression atmosphérique croît de 27,2 mm Hg ; par contre, au sommet du mont Blanc, où la pression est seulement de 45 cm Hg, l’eau bout à 85 °C. b) Si un liquide est chauffé en présence d’une atmosphère gazeuse dans un espace clos dont la température est uniforme, il ne peut bouillir, car à chaque instant la pression supportée par le liquide est égale à sa pression de vapeur saturante augmentée de la pression du gaz ; c’est ainsi que, dans un autoclave, on peut élever la température au-delà de 100 °C. Une soupape tarée limite cette élévation de température : quand la pression atteint par exemple 2 atmosphères, de la vapeur s’échappe, l’eau bout et sa température se stabilise à 120 °C, point d’ébullition sous 2 atmosphères. c) Un liquide ne peut bouillir que si la vapeur produite peut s’échapper, ou s’il existe un dispositif de condensation de cette vapeur, un réfrigérant ; ce dernier cas est celui de la distillation, qui repose sur le principe de la paroi froide (v. vaporisation) et peut être réalisée soit à l’air libre sous la pression de l’atmosphère, soit sous pression réduite (fig. 1), ce qui a l’avantage d’abaisser la température d’ébullition du liquide : le glycérol, qui bout vers 290 °C avec décomposition sous la pression atmosphérique, bout sans décomposition vers 160 °C sous 10 mm Hg. d) Si, par contre, le liquide n’est surmonté que de sa propre vapeur, on peut en déclencher l’ébullition dans un intervalle étendu de températures sans apport extérieur de chaleur : il suffit de refroidir la portion de la paroi au contact de la vapeur pour provoquer la condensation de celle-ci et ainsi produire un déséquilibre qui déclenche l’ébullition. C’est l’expérience du bouillant de Franklin (fig. 2), ballon qui a été soigneusement bouché après que l’air qu’il contenait eut été entièrement chassé par ébullition de l’eau ; en versant de l’eau froide sur le ballon retourné, on provoque l’ébullition de l’eau qu’il contient, même au cas où cette eau n’est que tiède.
Retard à l’ébullition
Dans l’ébullition, les bulles de vapeur se développent à partir de bulles microscopiques de gaz dissous dans le liquide ou adsorbé par la paroi. Si l’on chauffe un liquide complètement dégazé, au contact d’une paroi soigneusement nettoyée, on dépasse la température d’ébullition sans que celle-ci se produise : il y a retard à l’ébullition. Une surchauffe suffisante finit cependant par déclencher l’ébullition, qui est alors explosive. À l’inverse, l’introduction dans le liquide d’un corps poreux (ponce) supprime tout retard et régularise l’ébullition.
Caléfaction
Un liquide, eau ou air liquide par exemple, versé sur une plaque dont la température est beaucoup plus élevée que le point d’ébullition du liquide, se rassemble en grosses gouttes que la vapeur dégagée par l’évaporation maintient écartées de la paroi et à une température inférieure au point d’ébullition du liquide ; c’est le phénomène de caléfaction (fig. 3), qui cesse quand la température de la plaque s’abaisse. La goutte entre alors en contact avec la paroi et se vaporise instantanément ; certaines explosions de chaudières ont pu être produites par cette brutale émission de vapeur lorsque cesse la caléfaction.
R. D.
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