J. Campredon, le Bois (P. U. F., coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1949 ; 4e éd., 1969). / M. Duriez, Traité de matériaux de construction, t. II (Dunod, 1950). / J. Arrambide et M. Duriez, Liants routiers et enrobés. Matériaux de protection. Plâtres. Agglomérés. Bois (Dunod, 1958) ; Nouveau Traité de matériaux de construction, t. II (Dunod, 1962). / P. Galabru, Traité de procédés généraux de construction, t. II (Eyrolles, 1963 ; nouv. éd., 1968).
contrepoint
Technique d’écriture musicale qui consiste à superposer deux ou plusieurs lignes mélodiques distinctes, ainsi destinées à être entendues simultanément.
L’écriture contrapuntique suppose un contrôle « vertical » (dans l’instant) des sonorités obtenues par la rencontre des voix, mais pas nécessairement une organisation fondée sur le principe de l’accord.
Certes, en musique tonale — dans les fugues de Jean-Sébastien Bach, par exemple —, la combinaison des voix contrapuntiques forme des accords. La texture contrapuntique s’y distingue néanmoins d’une texture harmonique par l’indépendance et la vocation mélodique de chacune des voix, considérée séparément. L’aspect « horizontal » (linéaire) de la polyphonie se trouve alors privilégié, de même qu’est renforcé le sentiment de la pluralité des voix ; une polyphonie de type harmonique mettrait au contraire l’accent sur la sonorité globale des accords qui la composeraient.
Il existe un point d’équilibre entre les deux conceptions. La plupart des œuvres du plus grand contrapuntiste de l’histoire, J.-S. Bach, se prêtent à une lecture harmonique (verticale) aussi bien qu’à une lecture contrapuntique (horizontale).
Exemple 1 : choral no 31 de la Passion selon saint Matthieu (J.-S. Bach).
L’écriture contrapuntique est plus ancienne que l’écriture harmonique : la polyphonie occidentale a commencé, au Moyen Âge, par la combinaison de lignes mélodiques dont l’une au moins était empruntée au fonds grégorien. Bien plus tard, la cristallisation de la notion d’accord, s’exprimant au moyen de la basse chiffrée, a donné naissance à l’harmonie classique.
Encore que le contrepoint soit à l’honneur dans certaines pièces de Mozart (finale de la Symphonie Jupiter) et dans les dernières œuvres de Beethoven, on peut dire qu’il a subi une éclipse entre le milieu du xviiie s. et le xxe s., où les œuvres sérielles de l’école de Vienne (Schönberg et Webern s’étant attachés à créer un contrepoint fondé sur les notions de dissonance et de mouvement disjoint) lui ont donné un nouvel essor.
Aux premiers essais d’écriture polyphonique « note contre note » (punctum contra punctum), d’où le contrepoint tire son nom, ont succédé des formes plus complexes dans lesquelles s’est imposée progressivement la diversité des valeurs rythmiques.
Les motifs mélodiques et rythmiques exposés par une voix peuvent se retrouver dans les autres voix, non pas simultanément mais successivement. Ainsi le tissu musical est constitué par les mêmes éléments circulant d’une partie à l’autre sous une forme identique ou tout au moins analogue. Ce procédé, qu’on appelle imitation, a connu une immense fortune dans l’histoire de la polyphonie occidentale.
Exemple 2 : prélude XXIV du Clavecin bien tempéré, livre II (J.-S. Bach).
Le canon est une forme rigoureuse d’imitation. Ici, la voix no 2, ou conséquent, doit reproduire strictement la voix no 1, ou antécédent, sur une distance d’au moins quelques mesures. En général, la complexité d’un canon croît avec le nombre des voix mises en jeu.
Exemple 3 : Symphonie Jupiter (Mozart), parties de quatuor. Canon à la quinte inférieure et à l’octave.
Dans le contrepoint renversable, les voix doivent pouvoir s’échanger — A étant indifféremment placée au-dessus ou au-dessous de B — sans qu’il en résulte de mauvaises sonorités. Ce contrepoint est dit « double », « triple » ou « quadruple » selon le nombre de parties qui peuvent être ainsi interverties.
Exemple 4 : Invention à deux voix, no 13 (J.-S. Bach).
L’étude du contrepoint fait suite, traditionnellement, à celle de l’harmonie ; elle précède et conditionne l’étude de la fugue, qui en est une des applications. Par sa difficulté, née de l’observance de règles très précises, elle peut conduire l’apprenti compositeur à une grande habileté dans le maniement des voix d’un ensemble, en l’obligeant à les concevoir non comme les composantes d’une suite d’accords, mais dans toute leur indépendance linéaire.
Le contrepoint d’école se pratique de deux à huit voix — dont l’une, le cantus firmus, est généralement écrite en rondes —, selon diverses formes : a) note contre note (les parties libres en rondes) ; b) deux notes contre une (en blanches) ; c) quatre notes contre une (en noires) ; d) syncopes (de blanches liées) ; e) mélange (de b, c et d) ; f) fleuri (utilisation libre des valeurs ci-dessus) ; g) double-chœur (deux ensembles de quatre voix) ; h) renversable (à 2 et à 3 voix).
A. H.
Contre-Réforme
Ensemble des réformes entreprises par l’Église catholique en réponse à la Réforme* protestante.
Si le terme de Contre-Réforme est consacré par l’usage, il est d’un emploi délicat. On préfère celui de Réforme catholique, qui répond mieux à l’œuvre positive accomplie par l’Église romaine. Tout au plus, l’expression Contre-Réforme peut-elle recouvrir la première phase du mouvement, lorsque, sous l’influence prépondérante des Méditerranéens, Italiens et Espagnols représentés au concile de Trente, l’assemblée adopta une attitude radicale qui correspondait à celle tout aussi radicale des luthériens.
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