S. Laborde, le Cancer (P. U. F., coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1944 ; 10e éd., 1972). / P. Masson, les Tumeurs humaines (Maloine, 1956). / P. Denoix, les Cancers humains (Hachette, 1959). / H. Redon et J. C. Ménégaux, Indications chirurgicales dans le traitement des cancers (Masson, 1962). / Institut Gustave-Roussy, Carcinologie (Flammarion, 1962) ; la Maladie cancéreuse (Baillière, 1968). / R. et H. Herbeuval, Cellules cancéreuses et insolites du sang circulant (Masson, 1965). / G. Mathé, le Cancer (Hachette, 1967). / Symposium international de Spa, Dépistage du cancer (Masson, 1969). / G. Mathé (sous la dir. de), le Praticien face aux problèmes du cancer (Expansion, 1970).
candela
Unité d’intensité lumineuse.
Le mot candela est international et remplace les noms anciens, qui étaient bougie en français, candle en anglais, Kerze en allemand.
Définition légale
La candela est l’intensité lumineuse, dans la direction perpendiculaire, d’une surface de 1/600 000 de mètre carré d’un corps noir à la température de congélation du platine sous la pression de 101 325 pascals. Cette forme rédactionnelle a été adoptée en 1967 par la Conférence générale des poids et mesures.
La température de congélation du platine sous une pression donnée (la pression atmosphérique normale dans le cas présent) est physiquement définie et reproductible sans thermomètre. Un corps noir est une enceinte close à température uniforme, à l’intérieur de laquelle s’établit un rayonnement en équilibre avec l’énergie d’agitation thermique de la matière des parois. Ce rayonnement est le même à une température donnée, quelles que soient la forme et la nature chimique des parois ; il ne dépend que de la température. Si l’enceinte considérée est percée d’une ouverture de 1/60 de centimètre carré, et si l’on s’arrange pour que cette ouverture ne change pas le rayonnement, l’intensité lumineuse, pour des rayons lumineux sortant du corps noir dans une direction perpendiculaire au plan de l’ouverture, est par définition une candela.
Dans quelques laboratoires spécialisés, notamment au Conservatoire national des arts et métiers à Paris, on a réalisé un corps noir. C’est un tube de thorine immergé dans un bain de platine que l’on porte d’abord à l’état liquide en le chauffant par induction électrique, au moyen d’une bobine extérieure parcourue par un courant alternatif. On diminue ensuite le chauffage afin que le platine se refroidisse lentement et l’on surveille la variation de l’intensité lumineuse de l’ouverture du corps noir, qui renseigne sur la variation de la température. Pendant toute la durée de la congélation, la température et l’intensité lumineuse restent constantes, et le corps noir est conforme à la définition de la candela.
Réalisation pratique
Les étalons pratiques d’intensité lumineuse sont des lampes à filament incandescent de construction spéciale ; ce filament est composé de parties droites dans un même plan vertical, et l’intensité lumineuse de la lampe est toujours observée dans la direction perpendiculaire à ce plan. On règle l’intensité du courant électrique dans le filament de façon que son rayonnement ait la même couleur que le rayonnement du corps noir, et l’on mesure l’intensité lumineuse de la lampe étalon par comparaison à l’intensité lumineuse, connue par définition, du corps noir pendant le palier de congélation du platine. De telles lampes sont conservées dans les laboratoires nationaux de métrologie. Il suffit de les allumer avec la même intensité de courant électrique pour reproduire la même intensité lumineuse ; ces lampes conservent donc la candela sans qu’il soit nécessaire de recourir de nouveau au corps noir, dont la réalisation est difficile. Des lampes étalons d’intensité lumineuse de plusieurs grands pays sont rassemblées à intervalles de 3 ou 4 ans au Bureau international des poids et mesures, qui les compare entre elles. On constate alors de petites différences dans la valeur de la candela réalisée dans ces pays, différences qui peuvent atteindre 1 p. 100 en plus ou en moins.
Les lampes utilisées couramment pour l’éclairage émettent un rayonnement dont la couleur est différente de celle du corps noir au point de congélation du platine. Cependant, la mesure de leur intensité lumineuse est possible par comparaison avec celle des lampes étalons, malgré la différence de couleur, par divers procédés de photométrie hétérochrome, qui ont tous pour base l’adoption de valeurs conventionnelles internationales de l’efficacité lumineuse relative V (λ) des radiations monochromatiques, de longueur d’onde λ, dont se composent les rayonnements à comparer. D’autres valeurs V′ (λ), plus rarement nécessaires, ont été adoptées pour la vision scotopique, c’est-à-dire pour des yeux humains complètement adaptés à l’obscurité.
J. T.
canetage
Opération consistant à enrouler sur un support, ou canette, le fil destiné à constituer la trame d’un tissu.
Le but de cette opération est de mettre le fil provenant de filature ou du bobinage sous une forme et un volume susceptibles d’être placés dans les navettes des métiers à tisser. La capacité en fil de la canette doit être la plus grande possible en vue d’assurer une certaine autonomie de marche au métier à tisser. Généralement, la canette est formée d’un cylindre, ou fût, d’un diamètre faible par rapport à sa longueur. À l’une des extrémités se trouve une embase servant à la fixer dans la navette. Parfois, pour avoir une plus grande longueur de fil, on utilise, au lieu de canette, un petit cône appelé cops, sur lequel seule une partie du fil est maintenue par le support : ce type d’enroulement ne peut s’appliquer qu’à certaines matières ; de plus, son utilisation est limitée aux métiers à tisser mécaniques et aux métiers à tisser automatiques à changement de navette.
Pour de très gros fils fragiles, on confectionne un enroulement assez analogue, mais sans avant-cône, dénommé cocon. Il se dévide non par la pointe, comme les canettes et les cops, mais par l’intérieur. Le cocon est surtout utilisé en laine cardée, pour le tissage de couvertures, ainsi que dans l’industrie du lin et du chanvre sur métiers mécaniques et également sur métiers circulaires.
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