Le facteur humain reste un des éléments essentiels des vols spatiaux. La vie du cosmonaute est en jeu, d’où un sentiment de danger permanent auquel s’ajoute le fait du confinement dans une capsule de faibles dimensions, de l’isolement, de l’apesanteur, de la rupture du cycle jour-nuit, de la monotonie et de l’alimentation inhabituelle. Pour qu’un homme accepte de travailler dans ces conditions, il doit, à côté d’aptitudes techniques exceptionnelles, posséder une motivation élevée, un parfait état physique et un moral à toute épreuve. La sélection physiologique et psychologique comporte de multiples examens.
La sélection effectuée, commence l’entraînement des futurs cosmonautes : théorique, en caisson, à la centrifugeuse et en simulateur. Sa durée est de deux à trois ans. C’est dire que ceux à qui l’on confie l’honneur et le danger des missions aérospatiales ne sont ni des surhommes ni des robots, mais conjuguent une grande compétence technique, une résistance physique exceptionnelle et des qualités psychologiques certaines.
M. M.
J. H. U. Brown (sous la dir. de), Physiology of Man in Space (New York et Londres, 1963). / G. H. Bourne (sous la dir. de), Medical and Biological Problems of Space Flight (New York et Londres, 1963). / J. Colin et Y. Houdas, Physiologie du cosmonaute (P. U. F., coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1965). / L. Tabusse et R. Pannier, Physiologie et pathologie aéronautiques et cosmonautiques (Doin, 1969).
aérostation
Branche de l’aéronautique concernant les aéronefs gonflés avec un gaz plus léger que l’air (air chaud, hydrogène, gaz d’éclairage, hélium).
Introduction
• Le ballon, qui est l’ancêtre de tous les moyens de locomotion aérienne, a trouvé une forme quasi définitive dès son apparition. Il est constitué de trois éléments principaux : — l’enveloppe, qui est généralement réalisée à partir de panneaux en soie recouverte d’huile de lin et formant une sphère terminée à la partie inférieure par l’appendice laissant s’échapper le trop-plein de gaz dilaté. La soupape et le panneau de déchirure permettent respectivement de régler la vitesse ascensionnelle et d’assurer un dégonflement rapide au moment de l’atterrissage. Le volume de l’enveloppe varie de 200 à plus de 5 000 m3 ; — le filet, qui permet la suspension de la nacelle ; — la nacelle, généralement constituée en osier, qui contient les passagers et les agrès (lest, guiderope, etc.).
• Le dirigeable constitue une amélioration du ballon, puisqu’il n’est plus tributaire du vent pour ses déplacements, mais capable de suivre une trajectoire imposée grâce à ses moteurs. Le premier aérostat ayant accompli un circuit fermé est le dirigeable France, mis au point par les capitaines Charles Renard (1847-1905) et Arthur Krebs (1847-1935) [9 août 1884 à Chalais-Meudon]. Les plus célèbres dirigeables furent ensuite les zeppelins allemands, qui, à partir de 1900, furent utilisés tant dans le domaine militaire, pour des opérations de bombardement, que pour le transport commercial au-dessus de l’Atlantique Nord ou de l’Atlantique Sud. L’un des derniers construits, le Hindenburg LZ-129 (1936), avait un volume de 190 000 m3 et possédait une autonomie de 14 000 km avec une vitesse de croisière de l’ordre de 125 km/h.
Actualité de l’aérostation
En face des avions et des fusées, les ballons paraissent anachroniques et comparables aux diligences. En fait, il n’en est rien, et dans certains cas ils trouvent encore des emplois particulièrement appréciés. Il ne faut pas oublier que, sous leur forme stratosphérique, les ballons restèrent sans concurrence pour la connaissance de la haute atmosphère jusqu’en 1957, année au cours de laquelle fut enregistré le dernier record absolu d’altitude au moyen d’un sphérique : 31 000 m atteints par le major américain D. G. Simons. Plus tard, l’astronome français Audouin Dollfus réalisa des observations par télescope à très haute altitude au moyen de ballons météorologiques assemblés en nombre très important sous forme de grappes, ce qui permet d’atteindre en toute sécurité des altitudes très élevées.
• Le ballon-sonde est la forme sous laquelle survit aujourd’hui l’aérostation. Chaque jour, des milliers de ballons météorologiques sont lancés dans le monde. D’autre part, l’étude directe de l’atmosphère et de la stratosphère se poursuit au moyen d’autres ballons-sondes capables d’atteindre une altitude de 40 000 m. Ceux-ci transmettent toutes les informations désirées par télémesure et permettent d’effectuer des mesures qui ne peuvent pas être réalisées par fusées. En raison de leur vitesse ascensionnelle très lente, les ballons restent plus longtemps en altitude que les fusées et peuvent mesurer des phénomènes dont l’évolution est assez longue. Le ballon-sonde classique étant lui-même trop fugitif, notamment pour l’étude des vents à très haute altitude, les chercheurs français ont mis au point, vers 1966, des ballons surpressurisés de 2 m de diamètre ne comportant pas de manche d’évacuation et capables de maintenir une charge scientifique d’environ 2 kg à plusieurs kilomètres d’altitude pendant une durée d’environ un mois au minimum.
• Le dirigeable, dont quelques exemplaires étaient encore en service il y a peu de temps dans la marine américaine, semble avoir presque totalement disparu, si l’on excepte certains projets périodiquement évoqués de remise en chantier de grands dirigeables à usage touristique. En 1969, une firme allemande a fait construire par l’ancienne fabrique des zeppelins un petit dirigeable à des fins publicitaires qui comporte quatre ou cinq places.
• Le ballon captif connaît quelque regain d’activité, notamment comme support publicitaire. Une application particulièrement originale a également été tentée au Canada pour le transport sur de courtes distances, dans des régions inaccessibles où les autres moyens de transport sont inutilisables. En juin 1970, un ballon captif a été monté à 13 000 m, puis redescendu au large de la Corse. De forme spéciale, il permet d’obtenir une sustentation aérodynamique, qui vient s’ajouter à la force ascensionnelle. De tels ballons pourront servir de plates-formes d’observation et probablement de relais.
• Le ballute, mariage du ballon et du parachute, constitue un nouveau mode de sauvetage aérien, prévu notamment pour l’équipement des astronautes.
Enfin, il faut noter le renouveau de la montgolfière, d’une part sur le plan sportif aux États-Unis, d’autre part sur le plan scientifique en France. En effet, le commandant Cousteau a utilisé une montgolfière dotée d’un brûleur à gaz butane au cours des expéditions de la Calypso.
J. P.
F. Marie, les Origines de l’aéronautique militaire (Charles-Lavauzelle et Cie, 1924). / C. Dollfus et H. Bouché, « Histoire de l’aéronautique » (dans l’Illustration, 1938).
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