J. A. Gaya Nuño, Zurbarán (Barcelone, 1948). / M. S. Soria, The Paintings of Zurbarán (Londres, 1953). / P. Guinard, Zurbarán et les peintres espagnols de la vie monastique (Éd. du Temps, 1961). / R. Torres Martin, Zurbarán, el pintor gótico del siglo XVII (Séville, 1963). / M. L. Caturla, Fin y muerte de Zurbarán (Madrid, 1965). / P. Guinard et T. Frati, Tout l’œuvre peint de Zurbarán (Flammarion, 1975).
Zurich
En allem. Zürich, principale v. de Suisse ; 407 000 hab. (715 000 hab. pour l’agglomération).
La géographie
Le développement de Zurich a été favorisé par toute une série de facteurs naturels et humains : site et situation géographique favorables, proximité de zones agricoles riches et densément peuplées, existence d’un artisanat de vieille tradition orienté vers les échanges et acceptant le fait industriel ; dynamisme d’une population, essentiellement protestante, qui sut faire de la ville, dans le cadre de l’autonomie cantonale, une véritable métropole européenne ; enfin, conditions politiques issues de la neutralité suisse et assurant la stabilité.
Le site et la situation
Le lac de Zurich (Zürichsee) est installé dans la dépression déterminée par les deux chaînons de direction S.-E. - N.-O., le Zimmerberg, au sud, et le Pfannenstiel, au nord. C’est à la terminaison nord du lac que s’est développée la ville de Zurich, là où la Limmat joue le rôle d’exutoire. La ville, tout en étant en contact avec les Alpes, s’ouvre sur le Mittelland. La terminaison septentrionale du lac, à la hauteur de la vieille ville, est formée par une couronne des moraines würmiennes. C’est en contournant cet arc que la Sihl va rejoindre la Limmat. Un ensellement entre le Zürichberg et le Käferberg ouvre le lac de Zurich et la vallée de la Limmat en direction de la vallée de la Glatt (Dübendorf, Schwamendingen, Oerlikon [Örlikon], Glattbrugg), plus pauvre en eau. Cela a favorisé l’expansion de la ville vers le nord et le nord-est (indépendamment du pourtour du lac).
Le lac de Zurich se trouve à une altitude de 406 m. Le point le plus élevé situé sur le territoire municipal est le Uetliberg, appelé aussi Uto, culminant à 871 m. L’arc morainique, si important pour la fixation de la vieille ville, a été, à plusieurs endroits, percé par les eaux de fusion des glaciers, laissant des passages importants, ainsi que des collines. Décisive pour la genèse de la ville a été la colline Lindenhof, dominant la Limmat de plus de 20 m. La ville doit beaucoup au lac, qui constitue un environnement qui n’a cessé d’être valorisé. Ses bords ont été colonisés dès la préhistoire. La Limmat, d’une largeur de 200 m à la sortie du lac, se rétrécit jusqu’à 50 m à la hauteur de l’hôtel de ville. Le lac jouant le rôle de régulateur, les rives de la Limmat sont donc attractives jusqu’au confluent de la Sihl, qui perturbe considérablement son cours.
Le développement urbain
Les routes naturelles longeant le lac se rejoignent au nord de celui-ci pour se séparer de nouveau, formant une espèce d’étoile soulignant l’importance de la situation géographique au contact du monde alpin et du Mittelland. Le pont de l’hôtel de ville a été le point de convergence et de dispersion décisif. Un établissement celte, d’abord, un point d’appui militaire romain, ensuite, ont occupé cet emplacement. Des enceintes successives agrandirent la ville, axée sur la rivière. La ceinture morainique est franchie au xive s., en direction de l’actuelle Bahnhofstrasse. La ville comptait alors de 6 000 à 7 000 habitants. Le xviie s. voit la construction d’une enceinte à la Vauban. La situation de la ville était telle que celle-ci contrôlait tous les ponts intéressant les régions voisines. De plus, elle était le lieu de rupture de charge entre la navigation lacustre et fluviale, d’une part, et les transports routiers, d’autre part.
L’artisanat s’était développé, très tôt, sur les rives de la Limmat utilisant la force hydraulique de cette dernière. Moulins, scieries et forge étaient alignés côte à côte. Les reste de ces établissements industriels étaient visibles jusqu’en 1949. Les maisons pittoresques des corporations, conservées dans le voisinage rappellent ces activités passées.
Les ponts déterminèrent aussi la localisation des nombreux marchés. Au xixe s., les fortifications cédèrent la place à des espaces verts. Ce fut l’occasion de construire des édifices publics. C’est ainsi que, sur la « Hochschulterrasse », furent implantés l’université, l’École polytechnique fédérale (Polytechnicum), l’hôpital cantonal, les écoles cantonales, etc. La gare principale fut construite, au nord, sur un terrain vierge, en 1847. Elle permit de réaliser la première liaison suisse (Zurich-Baden). La gare donna naissance, sur près de 3 km, à de multiples activités industrielles et commerciales.
Le travail de la soie fut introduit d’Italie dès le Moyen Âge. Celui du coton le fut, de Locarno, au xvie. La révocation de l’édit de Nantes amena de nombreux huguenots dans la ville. L’industrie textile en profita en premier. Le travail à domicile était largement répandu à Zurich et dans les campagnes environnantes. Des entrepreneurs zurichois contrôlaient ainsi les campagnes voisines. Au milieu du xixe s., on dénombrait à Zurich 40 usines à soie et 18 grossistes en soieries. La fabrication de broches à filer, de métiers à tisser est une conséquence du travail du textile. Ainsi naquirent des quartiers industriels de part et d’autre de la Limmat, au nord de la vieille ville. Mais rapidement l’industrie déborda le cadre urbain pour s’installer dans les environs, notamment à Oerlikon. Les quartiers présentent des différences sociales assez considérables. Les fonds de vallée ont été rapidement colonisés par les populations ouvrières. L’habitat est plus aéré sur les coteaux, à proximité du lac. Plus on s’éloigne de la ville, plus les habitations sont cossues. La topographie ainsi que l’industrie ont amené une véritable ségrégation sociale. C’est sur les pentes du Zürichberg qu’on trouve les plus belles habitations.
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