K. Schottmüller, Der Untergang des Templerordens (Berlin, 1887 ; 2 vol.). / J. Gmelin, Schuld oder Unschuld des Templerordens (Stuttgart, 1893). / H. Finke, Papstthum und Untergang des Templerordens (Münster, 1907 ; 2 vol.). / M. Melville, la Vie des Templiers (Gallimard, 1951 ; nouv. éd., 1974). / A. Ollivier, les Templiers (Éd. du Seuil, coll. « Microcosme », 1958). / G. Bordonove, les Templiers (Fayard, 1963). / L. Charpentier, les Mystères templiers (Laffont, 1967). / G. Fau, l’Affaire des Templiers (le Pavillon, 1972). / R. Pernoud, les Templiers (P. U. F., coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1974).
temps
Grandeur caractérisant à la fois la durée d’un phénomène et un certain instant dans le cours des événements.
La notion de temps
Le temps joue en physique et en mécanique le rôle fondamental d’une grandeur telle que la longueur, la masse, l’énergie, etc. Mais sa mesure, du fait de sa nature immatérielle, présente des difficultés.
Généralités
Échelle de temps, intervalle de temps
Le temps apparaît, dans les équations de la mécanique et certaines équations de la physique, comme un paramètre, généralement désigné par t, lié à d’autres grandeurs. Si une grandeur x que l’on sait mesurer, une longueur par exemple, a été reliée au temps t de telle sorte que x soit une fonction de t, on a
On peut supposer que la formule (1) peut s’écrire aussi : c’est-à-dire que l’on peut considérer aussi bien que t est une fonction de la grandeur x. C’est la théorie qui permet d’obtenir l’expression de la fonction f(t) ou de la fonction g(x), théorie qui provient d’une loi physique et des données de l’expérience. Si, par exemple, x est la cote au-dessus d’un plan horizontal d’un point matériel en chute libre, on a
0v0tgt2xx0v0tgt2xx0v0tgt2
= + + 1/2 , où x0 et v0 sont la cote initiale et la vitesse initiale à l’instant origine (t = 0) ; g est une constante appelée accélération de la pesanteur. Si maintenant on effectue, à divers instants, des mesures de la grandeur x qui donnent pour cette grandeur les valeurs x1, x2, x3, etc., la formule (2) permet de leur associer les valeurs t1 = g(x1), t2 = g(x2), t3 = g(x3), etc., du paramètre t, donc de mesurer t. Le phénomène physique utilisé qui conduit à la mesure de la grandeur x, donc du temps t, s’appelle une horloge, et son étude fournit ce qu’on nomme une échelle de temps. Une échelle de temps idéale doit être universelle, aisément accessible, ininterrompue et précise. Mais sa principale qualité est l’uniformité, traduisant le fait que l’on peut exprimer une durée (un intervalle de temps) par la différence des valeurs que prend le paramètre t de l’échelle de temps à la fin et au début de l’intervalle considéré. Si l’on effectue une expérience de physique qui commence par un certain événement 1 et finit par un événement 2, et que cette expérience soit bien étudiée, on sait que l’intervalle de temps entre l’événement 1 et l’événement 2 est bien déterminé. Dans l’échelle considérée, en commençant l’expérience (événement 1) à l’instant correspondant à la valeur t1 de t, elle se terminera à l’instant correspondant à la valeur t2 de t. Si maintenant on commence l’expérience à l’instant , elle se terminera à l’instant : l’échelle sera dite « uniforme » si l’on a toujours quels que soient t1 et . Aucune des échelles actuellement en usage n’est parfaitement uniforme. On traduit cette anomalie en donnant pour une échelle considérée son « défaut d’uniformité » ε, tel que C’est en fait l’erreur relative que l’on commet en mesurant une durée par la différence des valeurs de t aux extrémités. Si, en pratique, il n’existe aucune échelle de temps parfaitement uniforme, on postule cependant qu’il existe une telle échelle théorique parfaitement uniforme, et les efforts de la science depuis des siècles consistent à trouver des phénomènes mécaniques, astronomiques ou physiques qui permettent d’obtenir une échelle aussi uniforme que possible.
L’échelle en usage dans la vie courante est l’échelle dite « de temps universel », dont le phénomène de base est la rotation de la Terre autour de son axe. Le défaut d’uniformité de cette échelle est 10–7. Une montre-bracelet ordinaire est constituée par des aiguilles qui se déplacent devant un cadran, entraînées par la détente d’un ressort. Cette montre définit sa propre échelle de temps ; cependant, on veut que cette échelle coïncide au mieux avec l’échelle de temps universel, et l’on remet de temps à autre la montre à l’heure pour qu’il en soit ainsi. On dit que la montre est une horloge secondaire donnant le temps universel, l’horloge primaire étant constituée par la Terre elle-même dans sa rotation autour de son axe. Le défaut d’uniformité d’une montre ordinaire, que l’on considère comme donnant sa propre échelle de temps, est évidemment plus grand que celui du temps universel. Par exemple, si la montre avance (ou retarde) de une minute en un jour, le défaut d’uniformité est égal à 1/24 × 60 = 0,000 7 environ, soit 7 . 10–4.
Unité de temps
Étant donné une échelle de temps, l’unité de temps sera une certaine durée définie par la différence des valeurs du paramètre t à ses extrémités ; par exemple, l’échelle de temps universel, issue de la théorie de la rotation de la Terre et de son mouvement par rapport au Soleil, est divisée en « jours solaires moyens », durée au bout de laquelle revient au méridien d’un lieu un corps fictif appelé « Soleil moyen ». L’unité de temps dans cette échelle est la seconde de temps moyen, définie comme la 1/86 400 partie du jour solaire moyen. Comme aucune échelle n’est vraiment uniforme, l’unité n’est pas de durée invariable si on la définit en n’importe quel point de l’échelle. En général, on prend comme unité une durée entre deux instants bien déterminés t0 et t1 de l’échelle ; l’unité n’est alors reproductible qu’avec une certaine erreur provenant du défaut d’uniformité de l’échelle.
On peut aussi songer à construire une échelle de temps d’une façon différente si l’on dispose d’un phénomène physique périodique que l’on peut raisonnablement supposer parfaitement stable ; c’est ainsi que les changements de niveau d’énergie des électrons dans les atomes provoquent des oscillations extrêmement rapides, que l’on suppose de durée invariable. La durée d’une oscillation est alors prise comme unité de temps de base, c’est-à-dire comme étalon. Il suffit de compter ces oscillations, qui s’ajoutent bout à bout, pour constituer une échelle de temps. On ne part plus dans ce cas d’une théorie physique, mais d’un postulat qui attribue une durée constante aux oscillations. Dans l’Antiquité, on agissait ainsi : la rotation périodique de la voûte céleste indéfiniment répétée était un phénomène fondamental que l’on supposait parfaitement régulier, et l’alternance du jour et de la nuit matérialisait une échelle de temps que l’on imaginait d’essence divine. Naturellement, une telle échelle n’était utilisable qu’à condition de ne pas être difficile sur la stabilité de l’étalon. D’autre part, la durée d’un jour est une durée trop longue pour être commode dans la vie courante, aussi avait-on affaire à des échelles auxiliaires pour subdiviser la journée en intervalles plus petits.
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