On peut, cependant, faire en sorte que toutes ces lois restent applicables en convenant de substituer, dans leur application, à la pression d’un gaz réel sa fugacité, à la molarité d’un soluté son activité. Ces grandeurs sont définies à l’aide de relations de même forme, la fugacité f d’un gaz par la relation
μμ0f
= + RT Log , μ étant le potentiel chimique pour une mole du gaz, potentiel fonction de la température et de la pression. De même, l’activité a d’un constituant d’une solution est définie par
μμ0a
= + RT Log . On nomme coefficient d’activité le rapport
γax
= /, x étant la molarité ; il devient égal à 1 dans les solutions idéales.
À l’aide de la notion d’activité, introduite par G. N. Lewis, on peut appliquer sous sa forme habituelle la loi d’action de masse à des gaz réels même fortement comprimés ou à des solutions. On définit ainsi, à température donnée, une constante Ka qui remplace la constante Kc, relative aux concentrations. Divers procédés, par exemple mesures cryométriques ou de f.é.m. de piles, permettent de déterminer les activités.
La notion d’activité s’étend aux solutions ioniques ; la théorie de P. J. W. Debye et E. Hückel des électrolytes forts permet le calcul des activités dans leurs solutions.
R. D.
activité
Nombre de désintégrations spontanées qu’une substance radioactive subit par unité de temps. Si, pour une substance radioactive, N est le nombre de noyaux et λ la constante radioactive, le nombre de désintégrations dN pendant le temps dt est donné par la formule dN = – λN d
t
. représente le nombre de désintégrations par unité de temps ; c’est, par définition, l’activité de la substance considérée. Comme est égal, au signe près, à λN, pour calculer cette activité on fera le produit des deux facteurs λ et N. Le temps au bout duquel la moitié des noyaux se sont désintégrés s’appelle la période ; celle-ci est reliée à la constante radioactive λ par la formule
On parle quelquefois d’activité massique ou d’activité volumique : ce sont des activités nucléaires par unité de masse ou de volume. L’activité induite est celle que présentent les corps irradiés par un flux de neutrons.
Unités d’activité
Unité légale
L’unité légale d’activité radionucléaire était le curie (symb. : Ci). Sa première définition avait été proposée par Marie Curie : « Le curie est l’activité d’un gramme de radium 226 en équilibre avec ses descendants », ce qui correspondait à 37 milliards de désintégrations par seconde. Pour obtenir ce résultat, on calculait le produit λN pour 1 g de radium.
À l’origine, Marie Curie avait adopté pour la période du radium T = 1 590 ans, soit, en secondes : T = 1 590 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s. D’où Dans un atome-gramme d’un élément quelconque (226 g pour le radium), il y a toujours le même nombre de noyaux : 6,02·1023 (nombre d’Avogadro) ; donc, dans 1 g de radium on aura On trouvait alors λN = 3,7 × 10
10
.
Par la suite, on s’aperçut que la période adoptée de 1 590 ans était inférieure à sa valeur réelle, que l’on évaluait alors à 1 620 ans ; actuellement, on aurait tendance à adopter 1 617 ans. Plutôt que de changer l’étalon, on préféra modifier la définition, qui était la suivante : « Le curie est l’activité d’une source radioactive quelconque pour laquelle le nombre de désintégrations par seconde est de 37 milliards. »
En 1975, la Conférence générale des poids et mesures a adopté une nouvelle unité d’activité, le becquerel (symb. : Bq). C’est l’activité d’une source radioactive quelconque se traduisant par 1 désintégration par seconde : 1 Ci = 37.109 Bq ou 1 Bq = 27.10–12 Ci. Cette nouvelle unité n’est pas encore entrée dans les habitudes et on continue à exprimer une activité en curies.
La radioactivité atmosphérique s’exprime en picocuries. Dans le domaine des explosions nucléaires, on utilise le mégacurie. Dans l’industrie, on trouve des sources radioactives ayant une activité de l’ordre du millicurie, du curie ; les sources de quelques dizaines de curies ne sont pas fréquentes. Dans le domaine médical, l’activité des sources est quelquefois de l’ordre de plusieurs milliers de curies ; les irradiateurs ayant pour objet la conservation des produits alimentaires atteignent plusieurs centaines de kilocuries.
Autres unités
Les Anglais avaient proposé, en 1946, de substituer au curie le rutherford, qui correspondrait à 106 désintégrations par seconde. En revanche, on utilise parfois la Sun-Shine-Unit (S. U.). Cette unité permet d’évaluer la contamination interne résultant d’éléments se fixant sélectivement dans le squelette, comme c’est le cas du strontium 90. La Sun-Shine-Unit correspond à un picocurie de radio-élément fixé par gramme de calcium contenu dans l’organisme. L’intérêt de cette unité résulte du fait que le taux de fixation du strontium 90 dans l’organisme est lié à la teneur en calcium de cet organisme, le strontium se fixant d’autant mieux qu’il entre en compétition avec moins de calcium. Le strontium qui pénètre dans l’organisme par l’intermédiaire des aliments provient surtout du sol ; il appartient au même groupe chimique que le calcium, mais les organismes opèrent une discrimination entre ces deux éléments, absorbant, en effet, moins de strontium que de calcium.
Utilisation des unités de puissance
Les photons et les particules émis par un corps radioactif emportant avec eux une certaine énergie, on peut exprimer l’activité d’une source en unités de puissance, c’est-à-dire en watts ou en électrons-volts par seconde.
On peut enfin traduire une activité en watts par mètre cube (W/m3) ; c’est le cas de produits de fission de l’uranium, cette unité étant liée à la puissance spécifique de fonctionnement des réacteurs nucléaires.
Ph. R.
G. Castelfranchi, la Physique moderne (Dunod, 1949). / J. M. Cork, Radioactivité et physique nucléaire (Dunod, 1949). / G. Dupuy, Radioactivité et énergie nucléaire (P. U. F., coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1954). / A. Berthelot, Rayonnement de particules atomiques (Masson, 1956). / P. Reine, le Problème atomique, t. IV (Berger-Levrault, 1959).
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