G. G. Smith, Gas Turbines and Jet Propulsion (Londres, 1942, 6e éd., 1955 ; trad. fr. Propulsion par réaction, Dunod, 1948, nouv. éd., 1952). / J. Sauteron, les Combustibles nucléaires (Hermann, 1966). / P. Lefort, les Turbomachines (P. U. F., coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1969). / S. Boudiguès, les Turboréacteurs (Dunod, 1970). / P. H. Wilkinson, Aircraft Engines of the World (Washington, 1970).
propylène
Hydrocarbure C3H6, second terme de la série des oléfines, ou éthyléniques, caractérisée par l’existence d’une double liaison entre les atomes de carbone : ou CH3—CH=CH2. (On dit aussi propène.)
Homologue immédiatement supérieur de l’éthylène, le propylène est, lui aussi, hautement réactif, ce qui en fait une des bases essentielles de la pétrochimie.
Production
Avec un point d’ébullition de – 48 °C, le propylène est gazeux aux conditions normales, incolore et inodore. Aisément liquéfiable, il peut être stocké et transporté sous une pression d’une dizaine de bars à la température ambiante et se présente alors comme un liquide limpide analogue, physiquement, au propane.
On l’obtient industriellement en tonnage important comme un coproduit de l’éthylène dans le procédé de steam cracking, qui est une pyrolyse, c’est-à-dire une décomposition d’hydrocarbures sous le seul effet de températures élevées, sans l’aide de pression ni de catalyseur, mais en présence de vapeur d’eau (vapocraquage). La matière première habituelle est, aux États-Unis, d’origine gazière (éthane provenant de la purification du gaz naturel) et, ailleurs, d’origine pétrolière (essence légère, naphta ou essence lourde, gas-oil).
Une autre source de propylène, moins abondante en Europe, est constituée par les gaz de cracking catalytique, procédé de raffinage surtout développé en Amérique pour augmenter le rendement en carburant de haut indice d’octane au détriment des fractions lourdes. Enfin, s’il est théoriquement assez facile de synthétiser du propylène par déshydrogénation du propane, la fabrication n’est pas rentable en raison du prix élevé de ce dernier, très demandé comme combustible non polluant.
Chimie du propylène
La réactivité du propylène peut d’abord être mise à profit dans la raffinerie même pour des synthèses de carburants, soit par polymérisation, deux propènes donnant un hexène, soit par alkylation, un propène et un isopentane donnant un iso-octane, par exemple. Ces procédés peuvent contribuer à la fabrication d’essence d’aviation à très haut indice d’octane pour moteurs à piston, qui est une spécialité peu pratiquée en Europe. Au contraire, les utilisations chimiques du propylène se sont développées très rapidement dans tous les pays industriels, car elles débouchent sur de nombreux produits de grande consommation.
Principaux dérivés
• L’isopropanol, ou alcool isopropylique (CH3)2CHOH, s’obtient très facilement par hydratation du propylène, l’acide sulfurique étant utilisé comme intermédiaire dans la réaction ; il est ensuite déshydrogéné en acétone (CH3)2CO ou utilisé lui-même comme solvant ou matière première chimique.
• L’acrylonitrile CN—CH=CH2 est fabriqué par ammoxydation, combinaison directe du propylène avec l’ammoniac, en présence d’un catalyseur comme l’oxyde d’antimoine. C’est le produit de base pour les fibres acryliques, le Nylon, divers plastiques et élastomères.
• Le polypropylène (C3H6)n est une macromolécule, longue chaîne droite de plusieurs centaines de molécules de propylène reliées entre elles par la jonction de leurs doubles liaisons. Plastique solide et résistant jusqu’à 140 °C, il est utilisé pour fabriquer des fibres, des emballages et des objets moulés.
• L’oxyde de propylène CH3CHOCH2 est traditionnellement obtenu par réaction intermédiaire avec l’acide hypochloreux, mais il existe maintenant des procédés industriels d’oxydation directe du propylène. Il sert surtout à la fabrication des polyuréthannes pour les mousses et les fibres élastiques.
• Le cumène C6H5—CH(CH3)2 est le produit de l’alkylation du benzène par le propylène. Il constitue la matière première principale dont on tire le phénol avec production simultanée d’acétone.
• De nombreuses autres fabrications chimiques sont également dérivées du propylène : glycérine, butanol, alcools en C8, isoprène, tétrapropylène-benzène, etc.
Consommation
Les besoins en propylène de l’industrie chimique atteignent 5 Mt aux États-Unis et presque autant en Europe occidentale avec un prix d’environ 1 000 F par tonne.
A.-H. S.
➙ Pétrochimie / Polymère pétrochimique.
prospection géophysique
Toute investigation fondée sur des lois ou des méthodes propres à la géophysique et qui est faite en vue de déterminer, à partir de la surface, la constitution géologique et minière (minerais métalliques, pétrole, etc.) du sous-sol ou ses propriétés physiques (densité, température, résistivités électrique et thermique, etc.). La prospection géophysique intervient donc pour compléter ou étendre les résultats donnés par la géologie. Les diverses méthodes mises en œuvre se classent d’après le phénomène géophysique sur lequel elles s’appuient.
Prospection sismique
Le principe utilisé est celui de la propagation d’ondes élastiques mécaniques à travers les diverses couches constituant le sous-sol. L’étude des séismes naturels est déjà la source d’une connaissance du sous-sol profond (v. sismologie). Cependant, la « prospection sismique » proprement dite se rapporte à la mise en œuvre de sources artificielles : explosifs, générateurs de vibrations, etc., sources que l’on dispose en surface ou dans des trous de mine ou de forage, ou encore au sein de masses liquides (prospection marine par exemple). On distingue : la « sismique-réflexion » et la « sismique-réfraction ». Dans la première, des récepteurs appropriés (sismographes, géophones) sont placés au voisinage de la source des ondes élastiques, dont ils enregistrent l’instant exact de retour au sol après leur réflexion sur telle ou telle surface liée à une discontinuité du sous-sol. Dans la seconde, ces récepteurs sont beaucoup plus éloignés de la source, de telle sorte que les ondes de retour qu’ils enregistrent ont parcouru d’assez longs trajets en projection horizontale. Dans les deux cas, la durée du parcours constitue l’information fondamentale : en sismique-réflexion, elle permet de déterminer la profondeur de la couche réfléchissante, donc le début d’une structure nouvelle inconnue, en tenant compte des connaissances déjà acquises — y compris la vitesse des ondes — relatives aux milieux supérieurs ; en sismique-réfraction, c’est, au contraire, la longueur du trajet qui est connue approximativement, d’où l’on déduit la vitesse des ondes et, par suite, les propriétés élastiques du milieu traversé et sa nature. En fait, les analyses sont plus complexes, les discontinuités de structure ainsi mises en jeu pouvant être multiples ou varier d’une façon progressive, ou dépendre de l’énergie fournie (ainsi que cela est utilisé pour distinguer entre sédiments et roches sous-jacentes dans l’exploration des fonds marins).
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