A. Françon, la Propriété des œuvres littéraires et artistiques en Grande-Bretagne et aux États-Unis (thèse, Paris, 1954) ; la Propriété littéraire et artistique (P. U. F., coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1970). / F. Valancogne, le Titre de roman, de journal, de film. Sa protection (Sirey, 1963). / A. Le Tarnec, Propriété littéraire et artistique (Dalloz, 1965). / H. Desbois, le Droit d’auteur en France (Dalloz, 1966 ; nouv. éd., 1973). / S. Stromholm, le Droit moral de l’auteur (Libr. techniques, 1967 ; 2 vol.). / P. Recht, le Droit d’auteur, une nouvelle forme de propriété. Histoire et théorie (Duculot, Gembloux et L. G. D. J., 1969). / F. Majoros, les Arrangements bilatéraux en matière de droit d’auteur (Pedone, 1971).
propulsion par réaction
Toute propulsion s’effectue par réaction, qu’il s’agisse de la marche à pied, de la propulsion par hélice dans l’eau ou l’air ou de la propulsion des avions modernes.
Introduction
Il y a en effet dans chaque cas application du principe de l’action et de la réaction suivant lequel toute action d’un corps sur un autre est compensée par une réaction du second corps sur le premier. Dans le cas de la propulsion, si un corps prend appui sur un support, c’est-à-dire exerce sur lui une force, il reçoit de la part de ce support une force égale et de sens opposé. Il faut distinguer la réaction sur appui fixe et la réaction sur appui mobile. L’exemple type du premier cas est celle de la marche, où le corps prend appui sur le sol et reçoit de ce dernier une réaction qui le pousse en avant. La propulsion dans l’eau ou dans l’air relève du second cas. Elle consiste alors à prélever une masse du fluide ambiant et à lui communiquer une vitesse vers l’arrière, obtenant en retour une réaction propulsive. Néanmoins, on réserve le terme de propulsion par réaction aux dispositifs dans lesquels la matière éjectée vers l’arrière provient de l’intérieur du véhicule, et dont un exemple simple peut être fourni par le tourniquet de jardin.
Deux cas doivent alors être distingués : — le véhicule emporte avec lui toute la matière éjectée ; c’est le cas de la propulsion par fusée, qui, elle, s’effectue aussi bien dans le vide que dans l’atmosphère, le rendement y étant même supérieur ; — le véhicule prélève de l’air dans l’atmosphère environnante et lui communique un accroissement de vitesse par apport de chaleur avant de le rejeter vers l’arrière. C’est essentiellement le cas du turboréacteur et du statoréacteur.
La poussée F d’un propulseur à réaction utilisant l’air ambiant est égale au produit du débit-masse d’air m par la différence entre la vitesse à la sortie Vs et la vitesse à l’entrée Ve du flux gazeux qui traverse la machine : F =
mse
(V – V).
Comme la vitesse d’entrée Ve est la vitesse de déplacement du véhicule, la puissance propulsive Wp est W
pemseepemseepemsee
= FV = (V – V) V.
La puissance thermodynamique Wth correspond à l’accroissement d’énergie cinétique du flux gazeux, soit
Le rendement propulsif, qui est le rapport Wp/Wth, a pour expression
Il en résulte que le rendement propulsif est d’autant plus grand que la vitesse d’éjection des gaz est plus voisine de la vitesse de vol.
Dans le cas du moteur-fusée, si l’on désigne par V0 la vitesse de vol, les formules deviennent :
Le turboréacteur
La technologie
Dans sa formule la plus simple, il comprend de l’avant vers l’arrière : une entrée d’air, un compresseur, une chambre de combustion, une turbine et une tuyère d’éjection. C’est en quelque sorte une turbine à gaz à laquelle on a associé une tuyère d’éjection ; la détente dans la turbine est calculée de telle sorte que l’énergie produite soit juste égale à celle qui est nécessitée par l’entraînement du compresseur, l’énergie résiduelle étant transformée en énergie propulsive dans la tuyère. Le turboréacteur est un moteur dont tous les organes mobiles sont animés de mouvements de rotation, ce qui, entre autres, le distingue du moteur à pistons.
• L’entrée d’air permet de transformer la vitesse d’entrée en pression statique, assurant ainsi une précompression avant le compresseur. Son importance est d’autant plus grande que la vitesse de vol est élevée ; sur les moteurs destinés à fonctionner dans une large gamme de vitesses, l’entrée d’air est à forme variable, notamment la section au col sur les entrées d’air pour moteurs supersoniques, qui présentent une forme convergente-divergente. Aux vitesses supersoniques, des ondes de choc prennent naissance dans la partie avant de l’entrée d’air, et la position de ces ondes doit être réglée en fonction de la vitesse de vol. Dans le cas des moteurs Olympus du « Concorde », la variation de forme est obtenue par déformation des parois internes et ouverture de trappes auxiliaires.
• La tuyère d’éjection est l’organe du turboréacteur dans lequel est effectivement créée la poussée. L’énergie résiduelle des gaz de combustion qui se sont détendus à travers la turbine est utilisée pour accroître la vitesse d’éjection de ces gaz. La forme optimale de la tuyère est telle que la pression du jet de gaz de combustion dans le plan de sortie soit juste égale à la pression ambiante ; on dit alors que la tuyère est adaptée. Cette forme dépend donc des conditions de fonctionnement du turboréacteur et de l’altitude de vol. Aussi, comme pour l’entrée d’air, certains turboréacteurs sont-ils équipés d’une tuyère à forme variable grâce à laquelle on peut ajuster la section de sortie aux conditions de vol. La variation de section peut être obtenue soit par braquage de volets périphériques, soit par déplacement longitudinal d’une pointe conique le long de l’axe de la tuyère.
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