H. Bordier, les Archives de la France (Dumoulin, 1854). / État sommaire par séries des documents conservés aux Archives nationales (Delagrave, 1891). / État des inventaires des Archives nationales, départementales, communales et hospitalières au 1er janvier 1937 (Didier, 1939) et Supplément 1937-1954 (Imprimerie nationale, 1955). / J. Favier, les Archives (P. U. F., coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1958 ; 2e éd., 1965). / État sommaire des versements faits aux Archives nationales par les ministères et les administrations qui en dépendent (Imprimerie nationale ; 3 vol. et suppl., 1929-1962). / Manuel d’archivistique (S. E. V. P. E. N., 1970).
Arctique (océan)
Ensemble des mers situées au nord de l’Amérique, de l’Europe et de l’Asie, au-delà du cercle polaire arctique.
Le plus petit océan de la terre, élargissement de l’Atlantique, est une mer continentale aux limites clairement définies ; les pointes septentrionales de l’Atlantique et du Pacifique en constituent les annexes. Jadis isolé par le froid et les glaces, aujourd’hui parcouru par les avions, bordé de ports et de lignes maritimes, l’océan Arctique présente un intérêt tant économique que stratégique.
Une méditerranée froide
À la différence de son équivalent austral, l’Arctique est une méditerranée totalement ou partiellement couverte de glaces : sa configuration a donc une importance climatique et hydrologique particulière.
Le bassin polaire
• Des plates-formes continentales, démesurées et monotones, occupent plus du tiers de sa superficie. La plus étendue se situe au nord de la Sibérie, où la mer des Tchouktches communique avec le plateau de la mer de Béring par un détroit peu profond (38 m). Les îles de l’archipel canadien sont isolées par des chenaux, surcreusés par les glaciers à plus de 500 m (800 m dans le détroit de McClure). La plate-forme nord-européenne présente un relief aussi accusé ; elle est semée d’îles ou creusée d’auges burinant profondément le sommet de la pente (fosses Voronina, Sviataïa Anna). Dans l’ensemble, la topographie monotone s’explique par la régularité des structures (enfouissement des boucliers sous une épaisse couverture sédimentaire), la présence d’aplanissements (parages du détroit de Béring) et l’extension d’un manteau sédimentaire quaternaire enrichi par des apports glaciaires (moraines) ou deltaïques. Le détroit de Béring a joué un rôle biogéographique notable : ouvert au Pliocène, il fut une voie de passage des faunes vers l’Atlantique ; mais, privé de son importance par un soulèvement survenu au milieu du Quaternaire, et donc asséché à diverses reprises (abaissement maximum de la mer : 140 m), il fut un pont continental assurant la libre circulation des espèces terrestres et des vagues de peuplement vers l’Amérique (Indiens, puis Esquimaux et Aléoutes il y a respectivement 27 000 et 10 000 ans).
• Au-delà de la pente continentale, d’origine tectonique, les fonds marins comprennent : 1. des seuils ; ces ponts, jetés entre l’Asie et l’Amérique, forment les chaînes transarctiques : la chaîne Mendeleïev (ou Alpha, ou Fletcher, à proximité du Canada) entre 3 700 et 1 400 m (point culminant) ; la chaîne Lomonossov, peu accidentée, parfois plate (sommet à 730 m) ; elles sont séparées par la cuvette Makarov, dont les parties les plus plates, plaines de Sibérie (3 946 m) et de Wrangel (2 825 m), sont reliées par la passe d’Arlis, qui semble avoir été empruntée par les sédiments venus de la plate-forme sibérienne, ont contribué au remblaiement de la cuvette ; 2. des bassins ; le bassin prépacifique est morcelé par des protubérances à flancs raides et sommets plats (plateau de Beaufort, cap Tchouktche), qui tendent à isoler la cuvette canadienne (3 900 m) des cuvettes des Tchouktches et de Beaufort, lesquelles communiquent par des couloirs comme la passe Charlie ; la mer de Béring (4 420 m) lui est associée ; le bassin préatlantique est plus profond (la moitié supérieure à 4 000 m) et partagé en deux bassins occupés par d’étroites plaines abyssales (dites « du Fram », ou « eurasiatique » et « de Nansen »), qui sont séparées par une zone de reliefs heurtés, des crêtes et des pics aigus, creusés de dépressions comme celles du Fram (5 335 m), du Fedor Litke (5 449 m) et du Lena (plus de 3 000 m) ; cette dernière met en relation les bassins polaire et groenlandais, et joue un rôle hydrologique considérable.
Ces montagnes sous-marines, soulignées par un groupement d’épicentres séismiques, sont considérées par certains auteurs comme les jalons d’une dorsale (de Gakkel, puis de Nansen plus au sud) qui serait le prolongement de la dorsale médio-atlantique. Une telle continuité n’est pas encore établie, mais il est certain que le bassin préatlantique possède une croûte de type océanique, à la différence des régions situées au-delà de la chaîne Lomonossov, qui est considérée comme la limite structurale d’un domaine stable au soubassement proche des boucliers précambriens. Le bassin prépacifique résulterait de l’affaissement d’une ancienne aire continentale, accompagné de l’accumulation d’une puissante série sédimentaire (12 km sous le cap Tchouktche) et d’une fracturation responsable de vastes épanchements volcaniques (chaîne Mendeleïev).
Le milieu arctique
Pour les mêmes raisons qu’au pôle Sud, l’apport calorique est limité ; toutefois, le froid n’y a pas la même rigueur, grâce au jeu de facteurs variés.
• L’océan Arctique est largement et profondément ouvert sur l’Atlantique, qui lui transmet sa chaleur par l’intermédiaire des courants tempérés norvégien et mourman, déportés jusqu’aux parages du Spitzberg et de la Novaïa Zemlia (Nouvelle-Zemble). Pour des raisons topographiques, l’eau qui franchit le détroit de Béring est réduite à une couche mince et peu salée. La pénétration des eaux atlantiques a une double conséquence.
En surface, le contact avec les eaux polaires s’exprime sous la forme d’un front hydrologique net mais sinueux, comme entre l’Islande et le Spitzberg. Les eaux plus chaudes que l’air contribuent à la formation d’une zone dépressionnaire permanente mais mobile, où l’affrontement entre les masses d’air arctique et polaire donne naissance à des perturbations cycloniques qui transitent vers le nord-est, y apportant pluie, tempête et neige.
>
We Care About Your Privacy
We and our 915 partners store and access personal data, like browsing data or unique identifiers, on your device. Selecting "I Accept" enables tracking technologies to support the purposes shown under "we and our partners process data to provide," whereas selecting "Reject All" or withdrawing your consent will disable them. If trackers are disabled, some content and ads you see may not be as relevant to you. You can resurface this menu to change your choices or withdraw consent at any time by clicking the ["privacy preferences"] link on the bottom of the webpage [or the floating icon on the bottom-left of the webpage, if applicable]. Your choices will have effect within our Website. For more details, refer to our Privacy Policy.
We and our partners process data to provide:
Use precise geolocation data. Actively scan device characteristics for identification. Store and/or access information on a device. Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development.
About Your Privacy
Your Privacy
Targeting Cookies
Functional Cookies
Performance Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Store and/or access information on a device 739 partners can use this purpose
Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development 881 partners can use this purpose
Use precise geolocation data 282 partners can use this special feature
Actively scan device characteristics for identification 150 partners can use this special feature
Ensure security, prevent and detect fraud, and fix errors 567 partners can use this special purpose
Deliver and present advertising and content 568 partners can use this special purpose
Match and combine data from other data sources 408 partners can use this feature
Link different devices 352 partners can use this feature
Identify devices based on information transmitted automatically 540 partners can use this feature
Save and communicate privacy choices 415 partners can use this special purpose
Your Privacy
We process your data to deliver content or advertisements and measure the delivery of such content or advertisements to extract insights about our website. We share this information with our partners on the basis of consent. You may exercise your right to consent, based on a specific purpose below or at a partner level in the link under each purpose. Some vendors may process your data based on their legitimate interests, which does not require your consent. You cannot object to tracking technologies placed to ensure security, prevent fraud, fix errors, or deliver and present advertising and content, and precise geolocation data and active scanning of device characteristics for identification may be used to support this purpose. This exception does not apply to targeted advertising. These choices will be signaled to our vendors participating in the Transparency and Consent Framework.
More information
Targeting Cookies
These cookies may be set through our site by our advertising partners. They may be used by those companies to build a profile of your interests and show you relevant adverts on other sites. They do not store directly personal information, but are based on uniquely identifying your browser and internet device. If you do not allow these cookies, you will experience less targeted advertising.
Functional Cookies
These cookies enable the website to provide enhanced functionality and personalisation. They may be set by us or by third party providers whose services we have added to our pages. If you do not allow these cookies then some or all of these services may not function properly.
Performance Cookies
These cookies allow us to count visits and traffic sources so we can measure and improve the performance of our site. They help us to know which pages are the most and least popular and see how visitors move around the site. All information these cookies collect is aggregated and therefore anonymous. If you do not allow these cookies we will not know when you have visited our site, and will not be able to monitor its performance.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Always Active
These cookies are necessary for the website to function and cannot be switched off in our systems. They are usually only set in response to actions made by you which amount to a request for services, such as setting your privacy preferences, logging in or filling in forms. You can set your browser to block or alert you about these cookies, but some parts of the site will not then work. These cookies do not store any personally identifiable information.
Store and/or access information on a device 739 partners can use this purpose
Cookies, device or similar online identifiers (e.g. login-based identifiers, randomly assigned identifiers, network based identifiers) together with other information (e.g. browser type and information, language, screen size, supported technologies etc.) can be stored or read on your device to recognise it each time it connects to an app or to a website, for one or several of the purposes presented here.
Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development 881 partners can use this purpose
Use limited data to select advertising 703 partners can use this purpose
Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device type or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example, to limit the number of times an ad is presented to you).
Create profiles for personalised advertising 560 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service (such as forms you submit, content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about you (for example, information from your previous activity on this service and other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or improve a profile about you (that might include possible interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present advertising that appears more relevant based on your possible interests by this and other entities.
Use profiles to select personalised advertising 561 partners can use this purpose
Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on your advertising profiles, which can reflect your activity on this service or other websites or apps (like the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests and personal aspects.
Create profiles to personalise content 251 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service (for instance, forms you submit, non-advertising content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about you (such as your previous activity on this service or other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or improve a profile about you (which might for example include possible interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present content that appears more relevant based on your possible interests, such as by adapting the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find content that matches your interests.
Use profiles to select personalised content 226 partners can use this purpose
Content presented to you on this service can be based on your content personalisation profiles, which can reflect your activity on this or other services (for instance, the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests and personal aspects. This can for example be used to adapt the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find (non-advertising) content that matches your interests.
Measure advertising performance 804 partners can use this purpose
Information regarding which advertising is presented to you and how you interact with it can be used to determine how well an advert has worked for you or other users and whether the goals of the advertising were reached. For instance, whether you saw an ad, whether you clicked on it, whether it led you to buy a product or visit a website, etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of advertising campaigns.
Measure content performance 391 partners can use this purpose
Information regarding which content is presented to you and how you interact with it can be used to determine whether the (non-advertising) content e.g. reached its intended audience and matched your interests. For instance, whether you read an article, watch a video, listen to a podcast or look at a product description, how long you spent on this service and the web pages you visit etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of (non-advertising) content that is shown to you.
Understand audiences through statistics or combinations of data from different sources 511 partners can use this purpose
Reports can be generated based on the combination of data sets (like user profiles, statistics, market research, analytics data) regarding your interactions and those of other users with advertising or (non-advertising) content to identify common characteristics (for instance, to determine which target audiences are more receptive to an ad campaign or to certain contents).
Develop and improve services 603 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service, such as your interaction with ads or content, can be very helpful to improve products and services and to build new products and services based on user interactions, the type of audience, etc. This specific purpose does not include the development or improvement of user profiles and identifiers.
Use limited data to select content 162 partners can use this purpose
Content presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device type, or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example, to limit the number of times a video or an article is presented to you).
Use precise geolocation data 282 partners can use this special feature
With your acceptance, your precise location (within a radius of less than 500 metres) may be used in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Actively scan device characteristics for identification 150 partners can use this special feature
With your acceptance, certain characteristics specific to your device might be requested and used to distinguish it from other devices (such as the installed fonts or plugins, the resolution of your screen) in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Ensure security, prevent and detect fraud, and fix errors 567 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
Your data can be used to monitor for and prevent unusual and possibly fraudulent activity (for example, regarding advertising, ad clicks by bots), and ensure systems and processes work properly and securely. It can also be used to correct any problems you, the publisher or the advertiser may encounter in the delivery of content and ads and in your interaction with them.
Deliver and present advertising and content 568 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
Certain information (like an IP address or device capabilities) is used to ensure the technical compatibility of the content or advertising, and to facilitate the transmission of the content or ad to your device.
Match and combine data from other data sources 408 partners can use this feature
Always Active
Information about your activity on this service may be matched and combined with other information relating to you and originating from various sources (for instance your activity on a separate online service, your use of a loyalty card in-store, or your answers to a survey), in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Link different devices 352 partners can use this feature
Always Active
In support of the purposes explained in this notice, your device might be considered as likely linked to other devices that belong to you or your household (for instance because you are logged in to the same service on both your phone and your computer, or because you may use the same Internet connection on both devices).
Identify devices based on information transmitted automatically 540 partners can use this feature
Always Active
Your device might be distinguished from other devices based on information it automatically sends when accessing the Internet (for instance, the IP address of your Internet connection or the type of browser you are using) in support of the purposes exposed in this notice.
Save and communicate privacy choices 415 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
The choices you make regarding the purposes and entities listed in this notice are saved and made available to those entities in the form of digital signals (such as a string of characters). This is necessary in order to enable both this service and those entities to respect such choices.