Au centre, l’axe Argentan-Alençon s’entoure des régions agricoles les plus actives avec les paysages complémentaires des forêts, des plaines et des bocages herbagers. Alençon (34 666 hab.) et Argentan (17 411 hab.) ont vigoureusement progressé au cours des vingt dernières années. Des créations d’emplois ont accompagné le développement des industries alimentaires et surtout des usines de la firme Moulinex (appareils électroménagers). À l’ouest, le Bocage normand demeure beaucoup plus isolé. Des très petites villes comme Domfront, Briouze, Carrouges somnolent. Seules La Ferté-Macé et surtout la région de Tinchebray - Athis-de-l’Orne - Flers (28 000 hab.) manifestent quelque dynamisme, le textile traditionnel ayant été relayé par des usines travaillant pour l’industrie automobile (Ferodo, Luchaire) ou fabriquant du matériel électrique (Philips). À l’est, dans l’attraction directe de Paris, le pays d’Ouche et le Perche forment une zone verte qui prolonge les régions voisines de l’Eure et d’Eure-et-Loir. L’industrie est très faiblement représentée, sauf à L’Aigle (10 209 hab.). L’agriculture et l’élevage ont enregistré des progrès importants, surtout dans le Perche, mais les campagnes n’abritent plus que des densités très faibles. Une nouvelle vie se manifeste cependant en fin de semaine dans les nombreuses résidences secondaires.
A. F.
➙ Normandie.
ornementation
En musique, nom donné à toute broderie (arabesque ou fioriture) surajoutée à une mélodie vocale ou instrumentale afin de l’embellir et, s’il y a reprise, de la varier.
Au cours des siècles, l’ornementation a été soit improvisée, soit indiquée par des signes conventionnels, ou encore entièrement écrite.
La coutume d’orner un chant en improvisant est très ancienne et s’est maintenue jusqu’à nos jours dans la chanson populaire — et plus récemment avec le jazz. Dans l’Église primitive, où la tradition se transmet oralement, elle est d’abord plus ou moins consciente et s’inspire des modèles orientaux, byzantins ou hébraïques. Quand s’élabore dans l’Église latine l’écriture neumatique, on prévoit, à côté des neumes d’accents, des neumes d’ornements, qui sont surtout utilisés dans les traits, les répons-graduels (ex. 1) et l’Alléluia, variations libres de mélodies simples à l’origine et plus spécialement destinées à mettre en valeur la voix du chantre soliste. Au Moyen Âge, dès les débuts de la polyphonie, l’organum est d’abord improvisé avant d’être noté. Au xive s., tandis que les chanteurs inventent des parties non écrites dans le discantus super librum (déchant sur le livre), les instrumentistes commencent à transcrire des pièces vocales en leur faisant subir des transformations suggérées par leur fantaisie, mais soumises aux possibilités propres de leurs instruments. Cette nouvelle technique, dite « de coloration », implique un style très orné. Elle se développe sur le luth et sur l’orgue avec Francesco Landino (1325-1397), puis avec Konrad Paumann (v. 1410-1473) et atteindra plus tard son apogée avec F. Couperin* et J.-S. Bach*. À la Renaissance, toute pièce vocale est pour l’interprète un canevas tracé par le compositeur, qu’il se doit d’étoffer en usant d’un répertoire de formules mélodiques et rythmiques improvisées. Ces formules, appelées passaggi (Italie), diminutions (France), glosas (Espagne) ou divisions (Angleterre), font l’objet, à partir de 1632 (Hans Gerle [v. 1500-1570], Musica Teusch), de nombreux traités pour le luth, les violes, les flûtes, la voix, etc., qui enseignent leur habile application. Giovanni Battista Bovicelli (fin xvie s.), dans ses Regole, Passaggi di Musica (1594), indique comment interpréter les madrigaux de son temps. Mais si, dans le domaine instrumental, les pièces de Claudio Merulo (1533-1604), de Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-1612), d’Antonio de Cabezón* (1510-1566) et de William Byrd* (1543-1623) révèlent un art brillant de l’ornementation, il en va un peu différemment dans le domaine vocal. Les diminutions, qui, dans les diverses parties d’une polyphonie, jouent un rôle plus décoratif qu’expressif, rendent le texte incompréhensible. Aussi ce procédé est-il critiqué et combattu lorsque s’imposent à la fin du siècle la monodie et le style accompagné. Avec le dessein de revenir à une traduction claire et fidèle du texte, des artistes italiens, Vincenzo Galilei (1533-1591), Jacopo Peri (1561-1633) et Giulio Caccini (v. 1550-1618), imposent seulement les ornements qui ont une fonction expressive. Dans la préface de ses Nuove Musiche (1601-1602), Caccini interdit les passaggi, trop souvent distribués au hasard, conseille l’usage de petits agréments (affetti, gruppo, trillo), mais tolère toutefois les traits d’agilité lorsqu’ils sont placés avec goût sur les syllabes longues et les cadences des morceaux peu passionnés.
En France, un peu plus tard, on commence à codifier les agréments en attribuant à chacun d’eux un signe particulier. On établit ainsi des tables d’ornements, qui, vers la fin du xviie s., se répandent dans toute l’Europe. Il est cependant difficile d’en donner une liste précise, car les compositeurs ne sont d’accord ni sur leur nombre, ni sur leur écriture, ni sur leur signification. Citons les principaux : le pincé, ou mordant (appelé aussi en France mortellement, flatté ou tremblement mineur), le trille, ou cadence (au xviiie s. : tremblement), le doublé (gruppetto en italien), l’accent, le port de voix, le coulé, la chute et l’arpègement. Chez les luthistes, qui semblent bien en avoir usé les premiers, et chez les clavecinistes, un même signe a souvent plusieurs significations, tandis qu’un même agrément peut être indiqué de plusieurs manières. Au xviiie s., l’interprète, chanteur ou instrumentiste, ne se prive pas, selon son goût, son imagination et son degré de virtuosité, d’ajouter de nouveaux ornements. Aussi doit-on tenir compte de cette mobilité capricieuse et du souci d’échapper à la monotonie dans l’exécution des œuvres de cette époque. Il est donc essentiel d’étudier attentivement les principes d’ornementation de chaque auteur. Les Français respectent généralement les agréments notés sur les partitions, mais les Italiens usent encore de l’ornementation ad libitum. G. F. Händel*, A. Corelli* (1653-1713), Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1770) et leurs émules se bornent, dans leurs sonates, à esquisser la partie de soliste. Tartini, dans son Traité des agréments de la musique (1782), donne des indications très utiles aux violonistes pour l’exécution de ses œuvres ; Corelli, plus discret, publie les siennes sans commentaires dans des versions très différentes de celles qu’il interprète lui-même. Une édition ornée de l’op. 5, publiée à Londres en 1711, permet, toutefois, en la comparant avec l’édition originale (1700), de se rendre compte comment, surtout dans les adagios, le compositeur substitue d’amples guirlandes de doubles ou de triples croches à certaines valeurs longues (ex. 3). Le schéma proposé en est totalement modifié.
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